Title: Effect of leg immersion in mild warm carbonated water on skin and muscle blood flow

Authors: Ogoh S, Washio T, Suzuki K, Ikeda K, Hori T, Olesen ND, Muraoka Y.

Journal: Physiol Rep. 2018 Sep;6(18):e13859. doi: 10.14814/phy2.13859. PMID: 30221833; PMCID: PMC6139710.

Link to full text: Effect of leg immersion in mild warm carbonated water on skin and muscle blood flow

Abstract: Leg immersion in carbonated water improves endothelial-mediated vasodilator function and decreases arterial stiffness but the mechanism underlying this effect remains poorly defined. We hypothesized that carbonated water immersion increases muscle blood flow. To test this hypothesis, 10 men (age 21 ± 0 years; mean ± SD) underwent lower leg immersion in tap or carbonated water at 38°C. We evaluated gastrocnemius muscle oxyhemoglobin concentration and tissue oxygenation index using near-infrared spectroscopy, skin blood flow by laser Doppler flowmetry, and popliteal artery (PA) blood flow by duplex ultrasound. Immersion in carbonated, but not tap water elevated PA (from 38 ± 14 to 83 ± 31 mL/min; P < 0.001) and skin blood flow (by 779 ± 312%, P < 0.001). In contrast, lower leg immersion elevated oxyhemoglobin concentration and tissue oxygenation index with no effect of carbonation (P = 0.529 and P = 0.495). In addition, the change in PA blood flow in response to immersion in carbonated water correlated with those of skin blood flow (P = 0.005) but not oxyhemoglobin concentration (P = 0.765) and tissue oxygenation index (P = 0.136) while no relations was found for tap water immersion. These findings indicate that water carbonation has minimal effect on muscle blood flow. Furthermore, PA blood flow increases in response to lower leg immersion in carbonated water likely due to a large increase in skin blood flow.

Title: Carbonate Ion-Enriched Hot Spring Water Promotes Skin Wound Healing in Nude Rats

Authors: Liang J, Kang D, Wang Y, Yu Y, Fan J, Takashi E.

Journal: PLoS One. 2015 Feb 11;10(2):e0117106. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0117106. PMID: 25671581; PMCID: PMC4324962.

Link to full text: Carbonate Ion-Enriched Hot Spring Water Promotes Skin Wound Healing in Nude Rats

Abstract: Hot spring or hot spa bathing (Onsen) is a traditional therapy for the treatment of certain ailments. There is a common belief that hot spring bathing has therapeutic effects for wound healing, yet the underlying molecular mechanisms remain unclear. To examine this hypothesis, we investigated the effects of Nagano hot spring water (rich in carbonate ion, 42°C) on the healing process of the skin using a nude rat skin wound model. We found that hot spring bathing led to an enhanced healing speed compared to both the unbathed and hot-water (42°C) control groups. Histologically, the hot spring water group showed increased vessel density and reduced inflammatory cells in the granulation tissue of the wound area. Real-time RT-PCR analysis along with zymography revealed that the wound area of the hot spring water group exhibited a higher expression of matrix metalloproteinases-2 and -9 compared to the two other control groups. Furthermore, we found that the enhanced wound healing process induced by the carbonate ion-enriched hot spring water was mediated by thermal insulation and moisture maintenance. Our results provide the evidence that carbonate ion-enriched hot spring water is beneficial for the treatment of skin wounds.

Title: A Novel Bathing Therapeutic Approach for Diabetic Foot Ulcers

Authors: Tappia PS, Hiebert B, Sanjanwala R, Komenda P, Sathianathan C, Arneja AS, Ramjiawan B.

Journal: Applied Sciences. 2021; 11(18):8402. https://doi.org/10.3390/app11188402

Link to full text: A Novel Bathing Therapeutic Approach for Diabetic Foot Ulcers

Abstract: Ineffective healing and treatment of foot ulcers can lead to an infection and gangrene of the wound area that ultimately results in the loss of the limb. The incidence of foot ulcers is higher in patients with diabetes, peripheral vascular disease and kidney disease. Accordingly, this study was undertaken to assess the ability of foot bathing in CO2-enriched water to heal foot ulcers. The design was a double-blinded, randomized, placebo-controlled study. Patients with at least one foot ulcer were randomized to receive either a treatment with bath therapy at 37 ± 0.5 °C containing either 1000–1200 ppm CO2-enriched tap water (the intervention) or non-carbonated tap water at 37 ± 0.5 °C (the control group). Treatment was conducted three times/week for 15 min per session for up to 16 weeks for a total of 48 treatment sessions. Before and at the end of every treatment month, wound size, wound area oxygenation and the ankle brachial index were measured. In addition, the McGill pain questionnaire was conducted. Blood was also collected at these time points (for a total of five collections) for the measurement of different biomarkers. While no significant differences (p < 0.05) in the group/time interaction effect were observed, a clear separation within the wound area reduction/wound area/oxygenated Hb outcomes was seen between placebo (control) and treatment (CO2) group. This pilot study is suggestive that bathing in CO2-enriched water may accelerate the healing of foot ulcers.

Title: Effect of Carbon Dioxide Therapy on Diabetic Foot Ulcer

Authors: Shalan, N. , Al-Bazzaz, A. , Al-Ani, I. , Najem, F. and Al-Masri, M.

Journal: Journal of Diabetes Mellitus, 5, 284-289. doi: 10.4236/jdm.2015.54035.

Link to full text: Effect of Carbon Dioxide Therapy on Diabetic Foot Ulcer

Abstract: Ulceration of diabetic foot represents one of the most concerning complications associated with uncontrolled blood sugar in diabetes mellitus. The aim of this study is to evaluate the condition of twenty-two diabetic patients with different degrees of ulceration in their feet after daily secessions of carbon dioxide therapy. Blood flow to the affected foot was measured by Doppler; also the size, color, degree of ulceration and sensation of the ulcerative area were all evaluated. Results showed improvement of blood flow to the affected foot as well as improvement in the sensation and color of the ulcerative area. It was concluded that carbon dioxide therapy of diabetic foot was promising and needed thorough investigation to be brought widely into application.

Title: Cognitive factors in carbon dioxide therapy

Authors: van den Hout MA, Griez E.

Journal: J Psychosom Res. 1982;26(2):209-14. doi: 10.1016/0022-3999(82)90038-1. PMID: 6804625.

Link to PubMed: Cognitive factors in carbon dioxide therapy

Abstract: The effects of CO2 inhalation on subjective state, heart rate and blood pressure were studied in two differently instructed groups, with use of air for placebo. Participants who were told that inhalation would produce a state of pleasant relaxation reported a statistically significant, confirming change when administered CO2, whereas air was found not to alter the subjective state appreciably. Those who had expected unpleasant feelings of tension did show a non-significant change in this respect after CO2 inhalation and no such reaction at all to the placebo. Heart rate and diastolic blood pressure dropped significantly after CO2 intake. Surprisingly, participants were subject to a significant decrease in heart rate upon inhalation of air when relaxation was expected. Finally, a number of theoretical inferences are made and the role of cognitive processes in the clinical use of CO2 therapy is underscored.

Title: Cardiovascular and subjective responses to inhalation of carbon dioxide. A controlled test with anxious patients

Authors: van den Hout MA, Griez E.

Journal: Psychother Psychosom. 1982;37(2):75-82. doi: 10.1159/000287556. PMID: 6812154.

Link to PubMed: Cardiovascular and subjective responses to inhalation of carbon dioxide. A controlled test with anxious patients

Abstract: Cardiovascular and subjective responses to inhalation of a 35% CO2 mixture were studied in a sample of anxious neurotics. Inhalation of air was used as a placebo control treatment. In comparison with the inhalation of air, CO2 produced a significant drop in diastolic blood pressure. A drop in heart rate frequency was observed both after inhalation of CO2 and air. CO2 inhalation did not produce an average decline in subjective feelings of distress. Explanations of these data are offered and they are compared with earlier findings. Some speculations are made on the clinical usefulness of CO2 inhalation in the treatment of anxious neurotics.

Title: The effect of transcutaneous application of carbon dioxide (CO2) on skeletal muscle

Authors: Oe K, Ueha T, Sakai Y, Niikura T, Lee SY, Koh A, Hasegawa T, Tanaka M, Miwa M, Kurosaka M.

Journal: Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2011 Apr 1;407(1):148-52. doi: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2011.02.128. Epub 2011 Mar 1. PMID: 21371433.

Link to PubMed: The effect of transcutaneous application of carbon dioxide (CO2) on skeletal muscle

Abstract: In Europe, carbon dioxide therapy has been used for cardiac disease and skin problems for a long time. However there have been few reports investigating the effects of carbon dioxide therapy on skeletal muscle. Peroxisome proliferators-activated receptor (PPAR)-gamma coactivator-1 (PGC-1α) is up-regulated as a result of exercise and mediates known responses to exercise, such as mitochondrial biogenesis and muscle fiber-type switching, and neovascularization via up-regulation of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). It is also known that silent mating type information regulation 2 homologs 1 (SIRT1) enhances PGC-1α-mediated muscle fiber-type switching. Previously, we demonstrated transcutaneous application of CO2 increased blood flow and a partial increase of O2 pressure in the local tissue known as the Bohr effect. In this study, we transcutaneously applied CO2 to the lower limbs of rats, and investigated the effect on the fast muscle, tibialis anterior (TA) muscle. The transcutaneous CO2 application caused: (1) the gene expression of PGC-1α, silent mating type information regulation 2 homologs 1 (SIRT1) and VEGF, and increased the number of mitochondria, as proven by real-time PCR and immunohistochemistry, (2) muscle fiber switching in the TA muscle, as proven by isolation of myosin heavy chain and ATPase staining. Our results suggest the transcutaneous application of CO2 may have therapeutic potential for muscular strength recovery resulting from disuse atrophy in post-operative patients and the elderly population.

Title: Improved exercise ventilatory efficiency with nasal compared to oral breathing in cardiac patients

Authors: Eser P, Calamai P, Kalberer A, Stuetz L, Huber S, Kaesermann D, Guler S, Wilhelm M.

Journal: Front Physiol. 2024 Aug 6;15:1380562. doi: 10.3389/fphys.2024.1380562.PMID: 39165283; PMCID: PMC11334221.

Link to full text: Improved exercise ventilatory efficiency with nasal compared to oral breathing in cardiac patients

Abstract: Objectives: To assess whether nasal breathing improves exercise ventilatory efficiency in patients with heart failure (HF) or chronic coronary syndromes (CCS). Background: Exercise inefficient ventilation predicts disease progression and mortality in patients with cardiovascular diseases. In healthy people, improved ventilatory efficiency with nasal compared to oral breathing was found. Methods: Four study groups were recruited: Patients with HF, patients with CCS, old (age≥45 years) and young (age 20-40 years) healthy control subjects. After a 3-min warm-up, measurements of 5 min with once nasal and once oral breathing were performed in randomized order at 50% peak power on cycle ergometer. Ventilation and gas exchange parameters measured with spiroergometry were analysed by Wilcoxon paired-sample tests and linear mixed models adjusted for sex, height, weight and test order. Results: Groups comprised 15 HF, CCS, and young control and 12 old control. Ventilation/carbon dioxide production (V E/V CO2), ventilation (V E), breathing frequency (fR), and end-tidal oxygen partial pressure (PETO2) were significantly lower and tidal volume and end-tidal carbon dioxide partial pressure (PETCO2) significantly higher during nasal compared to oral breathing in all groups, with large effect sizes for most parameters. For patients with HF, median V E/V CO2 was 35% lower, fR 26% lower, and PETCO2 10% higher with nasal compared to oral breathing, respectively. Exercise oscillatory ventilation (EOV) was present in 6 patients and markedly reduced with nasal breathing. Conclusion: Nasal breathing during submaximal exercise significantly improved ventilatory efficiency and abnormal breathing patterns (rapid shallow breathing and EOV) in 80% of our patients with HF and CCS.

Title: Increase in carbon dioxide accelerates the performance of endurance exercise in rats

Authors: Ueha T, Oe K, Miwa M, Hasegawa T, Koh A, Nishimoto H, Lee SY, Niikura T, Kurosaka M, Kuroda R, Sakai Y.

Journal: J Physiol Sci. 2018 Jul;68(4):463-470. doi: 10.1007/s12576-017-0548-6. Epub 2017 Jun 10. PMID: 28601950; PMCID: PMC10717130.

Link to full text: Increase in carbon dioxide accelerates the performance of endurance exercise in rats

Abstract: Endurance exercise generates CO2 via aerobic metabolism; however, its role remains unclear. Exogenous CO2 by transcutaneous delivery promotes muscle fibre-type switching to increase endurance power in skeletal muscles. Here we determined the performance of rats running in activity wheels with/without transcutaneous CO2 exposure to clarify its effect on endurance exercise and recovery from muscle fatigue. Rats were randomised to control, training and CO2 groups. Endurance exercise included activity-wheel running with/without transcutaneous CO2 delivery. Running performance was measured after exercise initiation. We also analysed changes in muscle weight and muscle fibres in the tibialis anterior muscle. Running performance improved over the treatment period in the CO2 group, with a concomitant switch in muscle fibres to slow-type. The mitochondrial DNA content and capillary density in the CO2 group increased. CO2 was beneficial for performance and muscle development during endurance exercise: it may enhance recovery from fatigue and support anabolic metabolism in skeletal muscles.

Title: Effects of an artificially carbonated bath on athletic warm-up

Authors: Akamine T, Taguchi N

Journal: J Hum Ergol (Tokyo). 1998 Dec;27(1-2):22-9. PMID: 11579696.

Link to full text: Effects of an artificially carbonated bath on athletic warm-up

Abstract: The effects of an artificially carbonated bath (36 degrees C, CO2 300 ppm, 20 minutes) on the warm-up of swimmers was compared with those of a freshwater bath (36 degrees C, 20 minutes). Carbon dioxide is reported to have a vasodilatory effect on peripheral blood vessels of cutaneous and muscular tissue and to promote blood flow. We observed that the warm-up effects of a carbonated bath before swimming on the hematocrit, white blood cell, total plasma protein, and total cholesterol levels in venous blood were significantly increased more than those of a freshwater bath before swimming in recovery period (p < 0.05). Thus the carbonated bath tended to be more effective for increasing the concentrations of blood components. In the recovery period, the carbonated bath before swimming also resulted in significantly smaller changes in blood lactic acid and heart rate than those of a freshwater bath before swimming (p < 0.05). The decrease in electromyography of the M. rectus femoris during swimming suggested more efficient muscle activity after a carbonated bath. Therefore after a carbonated bath, swimmers should have a higher reserve left in the cardiovascular system, resulting in better performance during swimming and less accumulation of fatigue-related metabolites after swimming.

Title: Enhanced Athletic Recovery Using Cold-Water Immersion with Dissolved CO2 and H2

Authors: Yoshimura M, Fukuoka Y, Sawada Y, Ichikawa H, Nakamura M

Journal: International Journal of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation

Link to full text: Enhanced Athletic Recovery Using Cold-Water Immersion with Dissolved CO2 and H2

Abstract: A Cold therapy is widely recognized as a prescription for acute-phase recovery in athletes. However, it has been suggested that vasoconstriction caused by cooling may, in fact, delay the recovery process after exercise. Therefore, we are researching a new cooling method that involves supplementing ice baths with carbon dioxide gas, which has vasodilatory effects, and hydrogen gas, which has anti-inflammatory properties. This new approach aims to improve muscle blood flow and performance while maintaining the benefits of cooling, such as pain alleviation. This mini review provides an overview of the acute recovery effects of this innovative method and its potential applications.

Title: Repeated-sprint training in hypoxia induced by voluntary hypoventilation improves running repeated-sprint ability in rugby players.

Authors: Fornasier-Santos C, Millet GP, Woorons X.

Journal: Eur J Sport Sci. 2018 May;18(4):504-512. doi: 10.1080/17461391.2018.1431312. Epub 2018 Feb 5. PMID: 29400616.

Link to PubMed: Repeated-sprint training in hypoxia induced by voluntary hypoventilation improves running repeated-sprint ability in rugby players.

Abstract: Purpose: The goal of this study was to determine the effects of repeated-sprint training in hypoxia induced by voluntary hypoventilation at low lung volume (VHL) on running repeated-sprint ability (RSA) in team-sport players. Methods: Twenty-one highly trained rugby players performed, over a 4-week period, seven sessions of repeated 40-m sprints either with VHL (RSH-VHL, n = 11) or with normal breathing (RSN, n = 10). Before (Pre-) and after training (Post-), performance was assessed with an RSA test (40-m all-out sprints with a departure every 30 s) until task failure (85% of the reference velocity assessed in an isolated sprint). Results: The number of sprints completed during the RSA test was significantly increased after the training period in RSH-VHL (9.1 ± 2.8 vs. 14.9 ± 5.3; +64%; p < .01) but not in RSN (9.8 ± 2.8 vs. 10.4 ± 4.7; +6%; p = .74). Maximal velocity was not different between Pre- and Post- in both groups whereas the mean velocity decreased in RSN and remained unchanged in RSH-VHL. The mean SpO2 recorded over an entire training session was lower in RSH-VHL than in RSN (90.1 ± 1.4 vs. 95.5 ± 0.5%, p < .01). Conclusion: RSH-VHL appears to be an effective strategy to produce a hypoxic stress and to improve running RSA in team-sport players.

Title: Application of carbon dioxide to the skin and muscle oxygenation of human lower-limb muscle sites during cold water immersion

Authors: Yoshimura M, Hojo T, Yamamoto H, Tachibana M, Nakamura M, Tsutsumi H, Fukuoka Y.

Journal: PeerJ. 2020 Aug 21;8:e9785. doi: 10.7717/peerj.9785. PMID: 32884861; PMCID: PMC7444506.

Link to full text: Application of carbon dioxide to the skin and muscle oxygenation of human lower-limb muscle sites during cold water immersion

Abstract: Background: Cold therapy has the disadvantage of inducing vasoconstriction in arterial and venous capillaries. The effects of carbon dioxide (CO2) hot water depend mainly on not only cutaneous vasodilation but also muscle vasodilation. We examined the effects of artificial CO2 cold water immersion (CCWI) on skin oxygenation and muscle oxygenation and the immersed skin temperature. Subjects and methods: Fifteen healthy young males participated. CO2-rich water containing CO2 >1,150 ppm was prepared using a micro-bubble device. Each subject's single leg was immersed up to the knee in the CO2-rich water (20 °C) for 15 min, followed by a 20-min recovery period. As a control study, a leg of the subject was immersed in cold tap-water at 20 °C (CWI). The skin temperature at the lower leg under water immersion (Tsk-WI) and the subject's thermal sensation at the immersed and non-immersed lower legs were measured throughout the experiment. We simultaneously measured the relative changes of local muscle oxygenation/deoxygenation compared to the basal values (Δoxy[Hb+Mb], Δdeoxy[Hb+Mb], and Δtotal[Hb+Mb]) at rest, which reflected the blood flow in the muscle, and we measured the tissue O2 saturation (StO2) by near-infrared spectroscopy on two regions of the tibialis anterior (TA) and gastrocnemius (GAS) muscles. Results: Compared to the CWI results, the Δoxy[Hb+Mb] and Δtotal[Hb+Mb] in the TA muscle at CCWI were increased and continued at a steady state during the recovery period. In GAS muscle, the Δtotal[Hb+Mb] and Δdeoxy[Hb+Mb] were increased during CCWI compared to CWI. Notably, StO2values in both TA and GAS muscles were significantly increased during CCWI compared to CWI. In addition, compared to the CWI, a significant decrease in Tsk at the immersed leg after the CCWI was maintained until the end of the 20-min recovery, and the significant reduction continued. Discussion: The combination of CO2 and cold water can induce both more increased blood inflow into muscles and volume-related (total heme concentration) changes in deoxy[Hb+Mb] during the recovery period. The Tsk-WI stayed lower with the CCWI compared to the CWI, as it is associated with vasodilation by CO2.

Title: Breathing Practices for Stress and Anxiety Reduction: Conceptual Framework of Implementation Guidelines Based on a Systematic Review of the Published Literature

Authors: Bentley TGK, D’Andrea-Penna G, Rakic M, Arce N, LaFaille M, Berman R, Cooley K, Sprimont P.

Journal: Brain Sciences. 2023; 13(12):1612. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci13121612

Link to full text: Breathing Practices for Stress and Anxiety Reduction: Conceptual Framework of Implementation Guidelines Based on a Systematic Review of the Published Literature

Abstract: Anxiety and stress plague populations worldwide. Voluntary regulated breathing practices offer a tool to address this epidemic. We reviewed the peer-reviewed published literature to evaluate practice components associated with stress reduction effectiveness. We identified 58 clinical studies, comprising 41 RCTs and 17 single-arm, pre-post, non-randomized trials; 5407 total participants were included, with a mean age of 35.9 years and 43.92% female. Among the 72 included interventions, breathing practices significantly reduced stress/anxiety in 54 interventions. Findings were used to develop a conceptual framework of breath practice effectiveness.

While commonly emphasized factors such as specific breath pace, population, and group versus individual practice were not found to be associated with effectiveness, five core components were: avoiding fast-only and <5 min practices; and incorporating human-guided training during initial sessions, multiple sessions, and long-term practice. Following this simple, evidence-based framework can help maximize the stress reduction benefits of breathing practices among broad populations.

Title: Slow-Breathing Curriculum for Stress Reduction in High School Students: Lessons Learned From a Feasibility Pilot

Authors: Bentley TGK, Seeber C, Hightower E, Mackenzie B, Wilson R, Velazquez A, Cheng A, Arce NN, Lorenz KA.

Journal: Front Rehabil Sci. 2022 Jul 1;3:864079. doi: 10.3389/fresc.2022.864079. PMID: 36189008; PMCID: PMC9397716.

Link to full text: Slow-Breathing Curriculum for Stress Reduction in High School Students: Lessons Learned From a Feasibility Pilot

Abstract: Purpose: Nearly one in three US adolescents meet the criteria for anxiety, an issue that has worsened with the COVID-19 pandemic. We developed a video-based slow diaphragmatic breathing stress-reduction curriculum for high school students and evaluated its feasibility, tolerability, and preliminary effectiveness.

Methods: This cluster-randomized feasibility pilot compared 5-min slow diaphragmatic breathing for 5 weeks with treatment-as-usual control among four 12th-grade public high school classes. Students individually participated after school during COVID-19-related hybrid teaching, with slow diaphragmatic breathing three times/week and breath science education once/week. Feasibility was based on completion of breathing exercises, breath science education, and preliminary effectiveness assessments, and ease/tolerability was based on qualitative assessments. Results: Forty-three students consented to participate. Breath practice compliance ranged from 29 to 83% across classes and weeks, and decreased on average over the 5 weeks. Compliance with the breath science videos ranged from 43 to 86%, and that with the weekly STAI-State and CO2TT measures varied from 36 to 86%. Compliance with ease/tolerability assessments ranged from 0 to 60%. Preliminary effectiveness assessments' compliance varied across classes from 83 to 89% during baseline, and 29 to 72% at follow-up. The curriculum was rated as somewhat-to-definitely useful/beneficial, and definitely-to-very easy/tolerable. Students reported enjoying the diaphragmatic breathing, CO2TT, and breath science education; some found the extended exhales challenging and the curriculum and assessments time-consuming. Preliminary effectiveness analyses indicated no significant changes in STAI or CO2TT from baseline to followup or from before to after breathing exercises (p > 0.05 for all).

Conclusions: Implementation of this 5-week slow breathing curriculum was feasible and tolerable to this cohort. Compliance, tolerability, and effectiveness may be improved with in-class participation. Future research on simple and accessible slow-breathing exercises is warranted to address today's adolescent stress-management crisis.

Title: Effects of conscious connected breathing on cortical brain activity, mood and state of consciousness in healthy adults

Authors: Bahi, C., Irrmischer, M., Franken, K. et al.

Journal: Curr Psychol 43, 10578–10589 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-023-05119-6

Link to full text: Effects of conscious connected breathing on cortical brain activity, mood and state of consciousness in healthy adults

Abstract: Breathwork as a means of inducing non-ordinary states of consciousness is gaining traction as a potential therapeutic modality. We examined the effects of breathwork (in the form of connected breathing) on electroencephalography (EEG) and mood in 20 healthy participants (aged between 23 and 39 years (female = 11, Mage = 29). In addition, to compare with other means of inducing non-ordinary states of consciousness, we assessed the subjective effects of breathwork using the 11 Dimension Altered State of Consciousness questionnaire. EEG spectral power analysis of eyes closed rest recordings before and after the breathwork session showed a decrease in delta (1–4 Hz) and theta (4–8 Hz) frequencies in frontotemporal and parietal regions, respectively no changes were seen in Alpha (9–12 Hz) and Beta (12–30 Hz) bands. However, after decomposing the beta waves in Beta 1 (12–15 Hz), Beta 2 (15–20 Hz), Beta 3 (20–30 Hz), decreases in power were observed across Beta1 and Beta 2 in parietotemporal regions. Notably, the spectral power in gamma increased in experienced practitioners. Scores on the Profile of Mood States questionnaire showed a reduction in negative affect (anger, tension, confusion, and depression) and an increase in esteem. Scores on the 11D-ASC scale indicated that subjective experiences during breathwork were similar to those after medium to high doses of psilocybin, suggesting the occurrence of experiences of mystical quality. Present results indicate that breathwork changes brain activity and mood, and induces mystical experiences. These results are promising and suggest that such techniques could be useful to improve mental well-being.

Title: Breathwork interventions for adults with clinically diagnosed anxiety disorders: A scoping review

Authors: Banushi B, Brendle M, Ragnhildstveit A, et al.

Journal: Brain Sci. 2023 Feb 2;13(2):256. doi: 10.3390/brainsci13020256. PMID: 36831799; PMCID: PMC9954474.

Link to full text: Breathwork interventions for adults with clinically diagnosed anxiety disorders: A scoping review

Abstract: Anxiety disorders are the most common group of mental disorders, but they are often underrecognized and undertreated in primary care. Dysfunctional breathing is a hallmark of anxiety disorders; however, mainstays of treatments do not tackle breathing in patients suffering anxiety. This scoping review aims to identify the nature and extent of the available research literature on the efficacy of breathwork interventions for adults with clinically diagnosed anxiety disorders using the DSM-5 classification system. Using the PRISMA extension for scoping reviews, a search of PubMed, Embase, and Scopus was conducted using terms related to anxiety disorders and breathwork interventions. Only clinical studies using breathwork (without the combination of other interventions) and performed on adult patients diagnosed with an anxiety disorder using the DSM-5 classification system were included. From 1081 articles identified across three databases, sixteen were included for the review. A range of breathwork interventions yielded significant improvements in anxiety symptoms in patients clinically diagnosed with anxiety disorders. The results around the role of hyperventilation in treatment of anxiety were contradictory in few of the examined studies. This evidence-based review supports the clinical utility of breathwork interventions and discusses effective treatment options and protocols that are feasible and accessible to patients suffering anxiety. Current gaps in knowledge for future research directions have also been identified.

Title: Transcutaneous Carbon Dioxide Improves Contractures After Spinal Cord Injury in Rats

Authors: Inoue S, Moriyama H, Yakuwa T, Mizuno E, Suzuki R, Nomura M, Sakai Y, Akisue T.

Journal: Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2019 Aug;477(8):1934-1946. doi: 10.1097/CORR.0000000000000808. PMID: 31135536; PMCID: PMC7000005.

Link to full text: Transcutaneous Carbon Dioxide Improves Contractures After Spinal Cord Injury in Rats

Abstract: Background: Joint contractures are a major complication in patients with spinal cord injuries. Positioning, stretching, and physical therapy are advocated to prevent and treat contractures; however, many patients still develop them. Joint motion (exercise) is crucial to correct contractures. Transcutaneous carbon dioxide (CO2) therapy was developed recently, and its effect is similar to that of exercise. This therapy may be an alternative or complementary approach to exercise.

Question/purposes: Using an established model of spinal cord injury in rats with knee flexion contractures, we sought to clarify whether transcutaneous CO2 altered (1) contracture, as measured by ROM; (2) muscular and articular factors contributing to the loss of ROM; (3) fibrosis and fibrosis-related gene expression in muscle; and (4) the morphology of and fibrosis-related protein expression in the joint capsule.

Methods: Thirty-six Wistar rats were divided into three equal groups: caged control, those untreated after spinal cord injury, and those treated with CO2 after spinal cord injury. The rats were treated with CO2 from either the first day (prevention) or 15th day (treatment) after spinal cord injury for 2 or 4 weeks. The hindlimbs of rats in the treated group were exposed to CO2 gas for 20 minutes once daily. Knee extension ROM was measured with a goniometer and was measured again after myotomy. We calculated the muscular and articular factors responsible for contractures by subtracting the post-myotomy ROM from that before myotomy. We also quantified histologic muscle fibrosis and evaluated fibrosis-related genes (collagen Type 1, α1 and transforming growth factor beta) in the biceps femoris muscle with real-time polymerase chain reaction. The synovial intima's length was measured, and the distribution of fibrosis-related proteins (Type I collagen and transforming growth factor beta) in the joint capsule was observed with immunohistochemistry. Knee flexion contractures developed in rats after spinal cord injuries at all timepoints.

Results: CO2 therapy improved limited-extension ROM in the prevention group at 2 weeks (22° ± 2°) and 4 weeks (29° ± 1°) and in the treatment group at 2 weeks (31° ± 1°) compared with untreated rats after spinal cord injuries (35° ± 2°, mean difference, 13°; 39° ± 1°, mean difference, 9°; and 38° ± 1°, mean difference, 7°, respectively) (95% CI, 10.50-14.86, 8.10-10.19, and 4.73-9.01, respectively; all p < 0.001). Muscular factors decreased in treated rats in the prevention group at 2 weeks (8° ± 2°) and 4 weeks (14°± 1°) and in the treatment group at 2 weeks (14 ± 1°) compared with untreated rats (15° ± 1°, 4.85-9.42; 16° ± 1°, 1.24-3.86; and 17° ± 2°, 1.16-5.34, respectively; all p < 0.05). The therapy improved articular factors in the prevention group at 2 weeks (4° ± 1°) and 4 weeks (6° ± 1°) and in the treatment group at 2 weeks (8° ± 1°) compared with untreated rats (10° ± 1°, 4.05-7.05; 12° ± 1°, 5.18-8.02; and 11° ± 2°, 1.73-5.50, respectively; all p < 0.05). CO2 therapy decreased muscle fibrosis in the prevention group at 2 weeks (p < 0.001). The expression of collagen Type 1, α1 mRNA in the biceps femoris decreased in treated rats in the prevention group at 2 and 4 weeks compared with untreated rat (p = 0.002 and p = 0.008, respectively), although there was little difference in the expression of transforming growth factor beta (p > 0.05). CO2 therapy did not improve shortening of the synovial intima at all timepoints (all p > 0.05). CO2 therapy decreased transforming growth factor beta immunolabeling in joint capsules in the rats in the prevention group at 2 weeks. The staining intensity and Type I collagen pattern showed no differences among all groups at all timepoints.

Conclusion: CO2 therapy may be useful for preventing and treating contractures after spinal cord injuries. CO2 therapy particularly appears to be more effective as a prevention and treatment strategy in early-stage contractures before irreversible degeneration occurs, as shown in a rat model.

Title: Role of the medullary raphe nuclei in the respiratory response to CO2

Authors: Dreshaj IA, Haxhiu MA, Martin RJ.

Journal: Respir Physiol. 1998 Jan;111(1):15-23. doi: 10.1016/s0034-5687(97)00110-2. PMID: 9496468.

Link to PubMed: Role of the medullary raphe nuclei in the respiratory response to CO2

Abstract: We characterized the role of neurons within the midline of the medulla oblongata on phrenic and hypoglossal nerve responses to hypercapnia during early-development. Studies were performed on decorticate or anesthetized; vagotomized and mechanically ventilated 14-20 day old piglets. Reversible withdrawal of midline neuronal activity was induced by microinjections of lidocaine (2%, 300 nl; n = 10) and lesioning was caused by microinjections of the neurotoxic agent, ibotenic acid (n = 12), at the same sites. At any given end-tidal CO2, peak phrenic and hypoglossal activities after lidocaine were significantly lower than in the control period (P < 0.01). Similarly, 1-2 h after injections of ibotenic acid, both phrenic and hypoglossal nerve responses to CO2 were significantly lower than in the control period (P < 0.01). The results indicate for the first time that the medullary midline neurons are required for full expression of ventilatory responses to hypercapnia and raise the possibility that dysfunction of these nuclei may contribute to respiratory instability during early postnatal life.

Title: Smaller amygdala is associated with anxiety in patients with panic disorder

Authors: Hayano F, Nakamura M, Asami T, Uehara K, Yoshida T, Roppongi T, Otsuka T, Inoue T, Hirayasu Y.

Journal: Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2009 Jun;63(3):266-76. doi: 10.1111/j.1440-1819.2009.01960.x. PMID: 19566756.

Link to full text: Smaller amygdala is associated with anxiety in patients with panic disorder

Abstract: Aims: Anxiety a core feature of panic disorder, is linked to function of the amygdala. Volume alterations in the brain of patients with panic disorder have previously been reported, but there has been no report of amygdala volume association with anxiety.

Methods: Volumes of hippocampus and amygdala were manually measured using magnetic resonance imaging obtained from 27 patients with panic disorder and 30 healthy comparison subjects. In addition the amygdala was focused on, applying small volume correction to optimized voxel-based morphometry (VBM). State-Trait Anxiety Inventory and the NEO Personality Inventory Revised were also used to evaluate anxiety.

Results: Amygdala volumes in both hemispheres were significantly smaller in patients with panic disorder compared with control subjects (left: t = -2.248, d.f. = 55, P = 0.029; right: t = -2.892, d.f. = 55, P = 0.005). VBM showed that structural alteration in the panic disorder group occurred on the corticomedial nuclear group within the right amygdala (coordinates [x,y,z (mm)]: [26,-6,-16], Z score = 3.92, family-wise error-corrected P = 0.002). The state anxiety was negatively correlated with the left amygdala volume in patients with panic disorder (r = -0.545, P = 0.016).

Conclusions: These findings suggested that the smaller volume of the amygdala may be associated with anxiety in panic disorder. Of note, the smaller subregion in the amygdala estimated on VBM could correspond to the corticomedial nuclear group including the central nucleus, which may play a crucial role in panic attack.

Title: Induction of c-Fos in 'panic/defence'-related brain circuits following brief hypercarbic gas exposure

Authors: Johnson PL, Fitz SD, Hollis JH, Moratalla R, Lightman SL, Shekhar A, Lowry CA.

Journal: J Psychopharmacol. 2011 Jan;25(1):26-36. doi: 10.1177/0269881109353464. Epub 2010 Jan 15. PMID: 20080924.

Link to PubMed: Induction of c-Fos in 'panic/defence'-related brain circuits following brief hypercarbic gas exposure

Abstract: Inspiration of air containing high concentrations of carbon dioxide (CO(2); hypercarbic gas exposure) mobilizes respiratory, sympathetic and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis responses and increases anxiety-like behaviour in rats and humans. Meanwhile the same stimulus induces panic attacks in the majority of panic disorder patients. However, little is known about the neural circuits that regulate these acute effects. In order to determine the effects of acute hypercarbic gas exposure on forebrain and brainstem circuits, conscious adult male rats were placed in flow cages and exposed to either atmospheric air or increasing environmental CO(2) concentrations (from baseline concentrations up to 20% CO(2)) during a 5 min period. The presence of immunoreactivity for the protein product of the immediate-early gene c-fos was used as a measure of functional cellular responses. Exposing rats to hypercarbic gas increased anxiety-related behaviour and increased numbers of c-Fos-immunoreactive cells in subcortical regions of the brain involved in: (1) the initiation of fear- or anxiety-associated behavioural responses (i.e. the dorsomedial hypothalamus, perifornical nucleus and dorsolateral and ventrolateral periaqueductal gray); (2) mobilization of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (i.e. the dorsomedial hypothalamus, perifornical nucleus and paraventricular hypothalamic nucleus); and (3) initiation of stress-related sympathetic responses (i.e. the dorsomedial hypothalamus, dorsolateral periaqueductal grey and rostroventrolateral medulla). These findings have implications for understanding how the brain senses changes in environmental CO(2) concentrations and the neural mechanisms underlying the subsequent adaptive changes in stress-related physiology and behaviour.

Title: Amygdalar atrophy in panic disorder patients detected by volumetric magnetic resonance imaging

Authors: Massana G, Serra-Grabulosa JM, Salgado-Pineda P, Gastó C, Junqué C, Massana J, Mercader JM, Gómez B, Tobeña A, Salamero M.

Journal: Neuroimage. 2003 May;19(1):80-90. doi: 10.1016/s1053-8119(03)00036-3. PMID: 12781728.

Link to PubMed: Amygdalar atrophy in panic disorder patients detected by volumetric magnetic resonance imaging

Abstract: It has been suggested that the pathophysiology of panic disorder (PD) may involve abnormalities in several brain structures, including the amygdala. To date, however, no study has used quantitative structural neuroimaging techniques to examine amygdalar anatomy in this disorder. Volumetric magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) studies of the amygdalas, hippocampi, and temporal lobes were conducted in 12 drug-free, symptomatic PD patients (six females and six males), and 12 case-matched healthy comparison subjects. Volumetric MRI data were normalized for brain size. PD patients were found to have smaller left-sided and right-sided amygdalar volumes than controls. No differences were found in either hippocampi or temporal lobes. These findings provide new evidence of changes in amygdalar structure in PD and warrant further anatomical and MRI brain studies of patients with this disorder.

Title: Neural Correlates of Competing Fear Behaviors Evoked by an Innately Aversive Stimulus

Authors: Mongeau R, Miller GA, Chiang E, Anderson DJ.

Journal: J Neurosci. 2003 May 1;23(9):3855-68. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.23-09-03855.2003. PMID: 12736356; PMCID: PMC6742203.

Link to full text: Neural Correlates of Competing Fear Behaviors Evoked by an Innately Aversive Stimulus

Abstract: Environment and experience influence defensive behaviors, but the neural circuits mediating such effects are not well understood. We describe a new experimental model in which either flight or freezing reactions can be elicited from mice by innately aversive ultrasound. Flight and freezing are negatively correlated, suggesting a competition between fear motor systems. An unfamiliar environment or a previous aversive event, moreover, can alter the balance between these behaviors. To identify potential circuits controlling this competition, global activity patterns in the whole brain were surveyed in an unbiased manner by c-fos in situ hybridization, using novel experimental and analytical methods. Mice predominantly displaying freezing behavior had preferential neural activity in the lateral septum ventral and several medial and periventricular hypothalamic nuclei, whereas mice predominantly displaying flight had more activity in cortical, amygdalar, and striatal motor areas, the dorsolateral posterior zone of the hypothalamus, and the vertical limb of the diagonal band. These complementary patterns of c-fos induction, taken together with known connections between these structures, suggest ways in which the brain may mediate the balance between these opponent defensive behaviors.

Title: Panic and the Brainstem: Clues from Neuroimaging Studies

Authors: Perna G, Guerriero G, Brambilla P, Caldirola D.

Journal: CNS Neurol Disord Drug Targets. 2014;13(6):1049-56. doi: 10.2174/1871527313666140612112923. PMID: 24923341.

Link to PubMed: Panic and the Brainstem: Clues from Neuroimaging Studies

Abstract: One of the most influential theories has conceived unexpected panic attack (PA) as a primal defensive reaction to threat within the internal milieu of the body. This theory is based on findings suggesting the involvement of dysfunctional respiratory regulation and/or abnormally sensitive central neural network of carbon dioxide (CO2)/hydrogen ion (H+) chemoreception in PA. Thus, unexpected PA may be related to phylogenetically older brain structures, including the brainstem areas, which process basic functions related to the organism's internal milieu. The brainstem represents a crucial area for homeostatic regulation, including chemoreception and cardio-respiratory control. In addition, the midbrain dorsal periaqueductal gray may be involved in the unconditioned defense reactions to proximal threats, including internal physical stimuli. Our aim was to specifically consider the potential involvement of the brainstem in panic disorder (PD) by a comprehensive review of the available neuroimaging studies. Available data are limited and potentially affected by several limitations. However, preliminary evidence of a role of the brainstem in PD can be found and, secondly, the brainstem serotonergic system seems to be involved in panic modulation with indications of both altered serotonergic receptors and 5-HT transporter bindings. In conclusion, our review suggests that the brainstem may be involved in psychopathology of PD and supports the relevant role of subcortical serotonergic system in panic pathogenesis.

Title: fMRI of fearful facial affect recognition in panic disorder: the cingulate gyrus-amygdala connection

Authors: Pillay SS, Gruber SA, Rogowska J, Simpson N, Yurgelun-Todd DA.

Journal: J Affect Disord. 2006 Aug;94(1-3):173-81. doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2006.04.007. Epub 2006 Jun 16. PMID: 16782207.

Link to PubMed: fMRI of fearful facial affect recognition in panic disorder: the cingulate gyrus-amygdala connection

Abstract: Background: This study investigated cingulate cortex (CC) and amygdala response to fearful facial affect recognition in patients with panic disorder (PD) as measured by BOLD fMRI during the presentation of static facial images.

Methods: Eight patients with PD and eight controls were studied. Scanning was performed on a GE Signa 1.5-T scanner. Echo planar and high-resolution MR images were acquired.

Results: Controls produced greater CC activation compared to patients with PD in response to fearful faces. Furthermore, patients with PD produced less amygdala activation than controls in response to fearful faces. During the neutral face condition, overall activation for the CC was significantly greater in PD patients although anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) activation was not as markedly different between both groups. There were no between group differences in amygdala activation on exposure to the neutral face. Only left CC activation was significantly correlated negatively with HAM-A in PD patients in the fearful facial affect condition.

Limitations: Although comparable to similar studies, the sample size is small enough to warrant further investigation. Also, the effects of medication need to be considered when interpreting these results.

Conclusions: Patients with PD activate the ACC and amygdala significantly less than controls when asked to identify fearful facial affect during fMRI. The higher the anxiety, the lower the left CC activation. Thus, chronic hyperarousal in PD may diminish attentional resources and emotional response reflected in reduced ACC and amygdala activation. Even if these are medication effects, the differences from controls are clinically relevant.

Title: Neuroanatomical Correlates of a Lactate-Induced Anxiety Attack

Authors: Reiman EM, Raichle ME, Robins E, Mintun MA, Fusselman MJ, Fox PT, Price JL, Hackman KA.

Journal: Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1989 Jun;46(6):493-500. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.1989.01810060013003. PMID: 2786401.

Link to PubMed: Neuroanatomical Correlates of a Lactate-Induced Anxiety Attack

Abstract: Positron emission tomographic measurements of regional blood flow were used to assess local neuronal activity in patients with panic disorder and in normal control subjects before and during the infusion of sodium lactate. A new technique for the analysis of positron emission tomographic data was employed to identify significant changes in regional blood flow associated with lactate infusion in the panicking patients, nonpanicking patients, and controls. Lactate-induced panic was associated with significant blood flow increases bilaterally in the temporal poles; bilaterally in insular cortex, claustrum, or lateral putamen; bilaterally in or near the superior colliculus; and in or near the left anterior cerebellar vermis. Lactate infusion was not associated with significant changes in regional blood flow in the nonpanicking patients or control subjects. Thus, the identified regions seemed to be involved in an anxiety attack.

Title: Amygdala circuitry mediating reversible and bidirectional control of anxiety

Authors: Tye KM, Prakash R, Kim SY, Fenno LE, Grosenick L, Zarabi H, Thompson KR, Gradinaru V, Ramakrishnan C, Deisseroth K.

Journal: Nature. 2011 Mar 17;471(7338):358-62. doi: 10.1038/nature09820. Epub 2011 Mar 9. PMID: 21389985; PMCID: PMC3154022.

Link to full text: Amygdala circuitry mediating reversible and bidirectional control of anxiety

Abstract: Anxiety--a sustained state of heightened apprehension in the absence of immediate threat--becomes severely debilitating in disease states. Anxiety disorders represent the most common of psychiatric diseases (28% lifetime prevalence) and contribute to the aetiology of major depression and substance abuse. Although it has been proposed that the amygdala, a brain region important for emotional processing, has a role in anxiety, the neural mechanisms that control anxiety remain unclear. Here we explore the neural circuits underlying anxiety-related behaviours by using optogenetics with two-photon microscopy, anxiety assays in freely moving mice, and electrophysiology. With the capability of optogenetics to control not only cell types but also specific connections between cells, we observed that temporally precise optogenetic stimulation of basolateral amygdala (BLA) terminals in the central nucleus of the amygdala (CeA)--achieved by viral transduction of the BLA with a codon-optimized channelrhodopsin followed by restricted illumination in the downstream CeA--exerted an acute, reversible anxiolytic effect. Conversely, selective optogenetic inhibition of the same projection with a third-generation halorhodopsin (eNpHR3.0) increased anxiety-related behaviours. Importantly, these effects were not observed with direct optogenetic control of BLA somata, possibly owing to recruitment of antagonistic downstream structures. Together, these results implicate specific BLA-CeA projections as critical circuit elements for acute anxiety control in the mammalian brain, and demonstrate the importance of optogenetically targeting defined projections, beyond simply targeting cell types, in the study of circuit function relevant to neuropsychiatric disease.

Title: Neurobiology of panic and pH chemosensation in the brain

Authors: Wemmie JA.

Journal: Dialogues Clin Neurosci. 2011;13(4):475-83. doi: 10.31887/DCNS.2011.13.4/jwemmie. PMID: 22275852; PMCID: PMC3263394.

Link to full text: Neurobiology of panic and pH chemosensation in the brain

Abstract: Panic disorder is a common and disabling illness for which treatments are too frequently ineffective. Greater knowledge of the underlying biology could aid the discovery of better therapies. Although panic attacks occur unpredictably, the ability to provoke them in the laboratory with challenge protocols provides an opportunity for crucial insight into the neurobiology of panic. Two of the most well-studied panic provocation challenges are CO(2) inhalation and lactate infusion. Although it remains unclear how these challenges provoke panic animal models of CO(2) and lactate action are beginning to emerge, and offer unprecedented opportunities to probe the molecules and circuits underlying panic attacks. Both CO(2) and lactate alter pH balance and may generate acidosis that can influence neuron function through a growing list of pH-sensitive receptors. These observations suggest that a key to better understanding of panic disorder may He in more knowledge of brain pH regulation and pH-sensitive receptors.

Keywords: CO2; chemo-sensation; lactate, brain pH; panic disorder; provocation challenge.

Title: Behavioral and cardiovascular effects of 7.5% CO2 in human volunteers

Authors: Bailey JE, Argyropoulos SV, Kendrick AH, Nutt DJ.

Journal: Depress Anxiety. 2005;21(1):18-25. doi: 10.1002/da.20048. PMID: 15782425.

Link to PubMed: Behavioral and cardiovascular effects of 7.5% CO2 in human volunteers

Abstract: The study of carbon dioxide (CO2) inhalation in psychiatry has a long and varied history, with recent interest in using inhaled CO2 as an experimental tool to explore the neurobiology and treatment of panic disorder. As a consequence, many studies have examined the panic-like response to the gas either using the single or double breath 35% CO2 inhalation or 5-7% CO2 inhaled for 15-20 min, or rebreathing 5% CO2 for a shorter time. However, this lower dose regime produces little physiological or psychological effects in normal volunteers. For this reason we have studied the effects of a higher concentration of CO2, 7.5%, given over 20 min. Twenty healthy volunteers were recruited to a double blind, placebo-controlled study where air and 7.5% CO2 were inhaled for 20 min. Cardiovascular measures and subjective ratings were obtained. When compared to air, inhaling 7.5% CO2 for 20 min increases systolic blood pressure and heart rate, indicating increased autonomic arousal. It also increases ratings of anxiety and fear and other subjective symptoms associated with an anxiety state. The inhalation of 7.5% CO2 for 20 min is safe for use in healthy volunteers and produces robust subjective and objective effects. It seems promising as an anxiety provocation test that could be beneficial in the study of the effects of anxiety on sustained performance, the discovery of novel anxiolytic agents, and the study of brain circuits and mechanisms of anxiety.

Title: The 35% CO2 challenge in panic disorder: optimization by receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis

Authors: Battaglia M, Perna G.

Journal: J Psychiatr Res. 1995 Mar-Apr;29(2):111-9. doi: 10.1016/0022-3956(94)00045-s. PMID: 7666379.

Link to PubMed: The 35% CO2 challenge in panic disorder: optimization by receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis

Abstract: To test the power of the 35% CO2 test as a challenge for panic disorder (PD), and to set an ideal threshold of discrimination between patients and controls, we analysed by receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis the responses of 91 out-patients with PD and 46 controls who inhaled a 35% CO2/65% O2 gas mixture. ROC analysis confirmed that the CO2 challenge discriminates well between PD patients and controls, with 86% probability to classify them correctly on the basis of subjective anxiety after the test. A relatively modest increment in subjective anxiety (i.e. an absolute increment of 20 units, or a relative increment of 26% of subjective anxiety) proved to be the ideal threshold to separate the two groups of our sample.

Title: On the psychotropic effects of carbon dioxide

Authors: Colasanti A, Esquivel G, Schruers KJ, Griez EJ.

Journal: Curr Pharm Des. 2012;18(35):5627-37. doi: 10.2174/138161212803530745. PMID: 22632467.

Link to PubMed: On the psychotropic effects of carbon dioxide

Abstract: It has been well established that the inhalation of Carbon Dioxide (CO2) can induce in humans an emotion closely replicating spontaneous panic attacks, as defined by current psychiatry nosology. The purpose of this review is to provide a critical summary of the data regarding CO2's psychopharmacological properties and underlying mechanisms. The authors review the literature on the human and animal response for the exposure of exogenous CO2 focusing on five points of interest: 1) the early history of the use of CO2 as an anesthetic and therapeutic agent, 2) the subjective effects of breathing CO2 at different concentrations in humans, 3) the use of CO2 in experimental psychiatric research as an experimental model of panic, 4) the pharmacological modulation of CO2-induced responses, and 5) the putative neurobiological mechanisms underlying the affective state induced by CO2. The authors conclude with an evolutionary-inspired notion that CO2 might act as an agent of a primal emotion serving a homeostatic function, in the control of respiration and acid-base balance.

Title: Body fluids after CO2 inhalation: insight into panic mechanisms?

Authors: Griez E, van den Hout MA, Verstappen F.

Journal: Eur Arch Psychiatry Neurol Sci. 1987;236(6):369-71. doi: 10.1007/BF00377427. PMID: 3119345.

Link to PubMed: Body fluids after CO2 inhalation: insight into panic mechanisms?

Abstract: Blood gases and electrolyte fluctuations were studied in arterial blood, after a single 35% CO2-65% O2 inhalation, which is known to trigger panic attacks in patients with panic disorder. The immediate effect of this maneuver was a brief hypercapnic acidosis followed by a slight alkalotic rebound, with shifts in Ca2+ and K+. The possible effect of these changes on neuronal membrane excitability is discussed, referring to recent experimental findings in panic provocation.

Title: A Long-Term Prospective Evaluation of First-Degree Relatives of Panic Patients Who Underwent the 35% CO2 Challenge

Authors: Perna G, Cocchi S, Allevi L, Bussi R, Bellodi L.

Journal: Biol Psychiatry. 1999 Feb 1;45(3):365-7. doi: 10.1016/s0006-3223(98)00030-4. PMID: 10023515.

Link to PubMed: A Long-Term Prospective Evaluation of First-Degree Relatives of Panic Patients Who Underwent the 35% CO2 Challenge

Abstract: This follow-up study investigated the potential priming effect of the 35% CO2 challenge on the development of anxiety disorders and/or panic attacks in healthy first-degree relatives of panic patients across a period of 3-4 years subsequent to the challenge. Thirty-one relatives who underwent the 35% CO2 challenge 3-4 years before and 14 relatives, free from psychiatric diagnoses in the same period, were directly reevaluated for the presence of anxiety disorders and panic attacks. None developed anxiety disorders and only 1, among relatives previously tested with the 35% CO2 challenge, reported sporadic panic attacks. The 35% CO2 challenge is a safe research paradigm in the investigation of healthy subjects with a familial vulnerability to panic, and CO2 hypersensitivity might be considered a trait marker of an underlying familial vulnerability to panic disorder.

Title: Examining the latent class structure of CO2 hypersensitivity using time course trajectories of panic response systems

Authors: Roberson-Nay R, Beadel JR, Gorlin EI, Latendresse SJ, Teachman BA.

Journal: J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry. 2015 Jun;47:68-76. doi: 10.1016/j.jbtep.2014.10.013. Epub 2014 Nov 15. PMID: 25496936; PMCID: PMC4324118.

Link to full text: Examining the latent class structure of CO2 hypersensitivity using time course trajectories of panic response systems

Abstract: Carbon dioxide (CO2) hypersensitivity is hypothesized to be a robust endophenotypic marker of panic spectrum vulnerability. The goal of the current study was to explore the latent class trajectories of three primary response systems theoretically associated with CO2 hypersensitivity: subjective anxiety, panic symptoms, and respiratory rate (fR). Participants (n = 376; 56% female) underwent a maintained 7.5% CO2 breathing task that included three phases: baseline, CO2 air breathing, and recovery. Growth mixture modeling was used to compare response classes (1…n) to identify the best-fit model for each marker. Panic correlates also were examined to determine class differences in panic vulnerability. For subjective anxiety ratings, a three-class model was selected, with individuals in one class reporting an acute increase in anxiety during 7.5% CO2 breathing and a return to pre-CO2 levels during recovery. A second, smaller latent class was distinguished by elevated anxiety across all three phases. The third class reported low anxiety reported during room air, a mild increase in anxiety during 7.5% CO2 breathing, and a return to baseline during recovery. Latent class trajectories for fR yielded one class whereas panic symptom response yielded two classes. This study examined CO2 hypersensitivity in one of the largest samples to date, but did not ascertain a general population sample thereby limiting generalizability. Moreover, a true resting baseline measure of fR was not measured. Two classes potentially representing different risk pathways were observed. Implications of results will be discussed in the context of panic risk research.

Title: Five percent carbon dioxide challenge: valid analogue and marker of panic disorder?

Authors: Sanderson WC, Wetzler S.

Journal: Biol Psychiatry. 1990 Apr 1;27(7):689-701. doi: 10.1016/0006-3223(90)90584-o. PMID: 2109638.

Link to PubMed: Five percent carbon dioxide challenge: valid analogue and marker of panic disorder?

Abstract: The administration of 5% carbon dioxide (CO2) to patients with panic disorder (PD) induces a behavioral response similar to a naturally occurring panic attack. This article reviews the literature on the nature and incidence of this response. We conclude that the 5% CO2 challenge test is a valid and useful laboratory analogue of naturally occurring panic attacks, and shows promise as a marker to identify a subset of PD patients. Though further research on reliability, validity, and dose-response effects must be conducted, the CO2 challenge test provides important information regarding the phenomenology of panic states.

Title: Fear Reactivity to Bodily Sensations Among Heavy Smokers and Nonsmokers

Authors: Abrams K, Zvolensky MJ, Dorflinger L, Galatis A, Blank M, Eissenberg T.

Journal: Exp Clin Psychopharmacol. 2008 Jun;16(3):230-9. doi: 10.1037/1064-1297.16.3.230. PMID: 18540783.

Link to PubMed: Fear Reactivity to Bodily Sensations Among Heavy Smokers and Nonsmokers

Abstract: Individuals who smoke are more likely to experience panic attacks and develop panic disorder than those in the general population. One possible explanation is that smokers may experience a heightened fear response to somatic disturbances. To date, few laboratory studies have tested this hypothesis directly. The present study examined 24 adult heavy smokers (10 females) in 12-hr nicotine withdrawal and 24 adult nonsmokers (12 females) on subjective and physiological reactivity to a 4-min carbon dioxide rebreathing challenge. Results indicate that, despite an attenuated acceleration in respiration during the challenge, smokers experienced a significantly greater increase in self-reported panic symptoms than nonsmokers. In addition, smokers reported significantly greater trait levels of suffocation fear prior to the challenge. Findings are discussed with respect to the role of smoking in panic vulnerability.

Title: Interoceptive Fear Conditioning and Panic Disorder: The Role of Conditioned Stimulus–Unconditioned Stimulus Predictability

Authors: Acheson DT, Forsyth JP, Moses E.

Journal: Behav Ther. 2012 Mar;43(1):174-89. doi: 10.1016/j.beth.2011.06.001. Epub 2011 Jun 15. PMID: 22304889.

Link to PubMed: Interoceptive Fear Conditioning and Panic Disorder: The Role of Conditioned Stimulus–Unconditioned Stimulus Predictability

Abstract: Interoceptive fear conditioning is at the core of contemporary behavioral accounts of panic disorder. Yet, to date only one study has attempted to evaluate interoceptive fear conditioning in humans (see Acheson, Forsyth, Prenoveau, & Bouton, 2007). That study used brief (physiologically inert) and longer-duration (panicogenic) inhalations of 20% CO(2)-enriched air as an interoceptive conditioned (CS) and unconditioned (US) stimulus and evaluated fear learning in three conditions: CS only, CS-US paired, and CS-US unpaired. Results showed fear conditioning in the paired condition, and fearful responding and resistance to extinction in an unpaired condition. The authors speculated that such effects may be due to difficulty discriminating between the CS and the US. The aims of the present study are to (a) replicate and expand this line of work using an improved methodology, and (b) clarify the role of CS-US discrimination difficulties in either potentiating or depotentiating fear learning. Healthy participants (N=104) were randomly assigned to one of four conditions: (a) CS only, (b) contingent CS-US pairings, (c) unpaired CS and US presentations, or (d) an unpaired "discrimination" contingency, which included an exteroceptive discrimination cue concurrently with CS onset. Electrodermal and self-report ratings served as indices of conditioned responding. Consistent with expectation, the paired contingency and unpaired contingencies yielded elevated fearful responding to the CS alone. Moreover, adding a discrimination cue to the unpaired contingency effectively attenuated fearful responding. Overall, findings are consistent with modern learning theory accounts of panic and highlight the role of interoceptive conditioning and unpredictability in the etiology of panic disorder.

Title: A genetic study of the acute anxious response to carbon dioxide stimulation in man

Authors: Battaglia M, Ogliari A, Harris J, Spatola CA, Pesenti-Gritti P, Reichborn-Kjennerud T, Torgersen S, Kringlen E, Tambs K.

Journal: J Psychiatr Res. 2007 Dec;41(11):906-17. doi: 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2006.12.002. Epub 2007 Jan 24. PMID: 17254605.

Link to PubMed: A genetic study of the acute anxious response to carbon dioxide stimulation in man

Abstract: People with panic disorder-agoraphobia and their relatives often react anxiously to CO(2)-enriched gas mixtures. Available data are not suited to disentangle genetic from common environmental causes of familial aggregation of CO(2) reactivity, nor provide quantitative estimations of the sources of trait variation. Three-hundred-forty-six twin pairs belonging to the general population-based Norwegian NIPH Mental Health Study underwent self-assessments of anxiety and of DSM-IV panic symptoms after inhalation of a 35%CO(2)-65%O(2) mixture. Two thresholds were employed - at sample's 75th and 90th percentiles of responses - to define provoked panic attacks and to calculate polychoric correlations. Variance components were estimated by structural equation modelling (SEM). For definitions of responses based on the sum of all 13 panic symptoms, SEM could not discriminate between shared environmental versus genetic causes of familial resemblance for provoked attacks. For definitions of responses based on global anxiety, or on the sums of those symptoms (dyspnea, dizziness, palpitations) with highest variance post-CO(2), the best-fitting models indicated additive genetic factors as the sole causes for within-family resemblance. Best-fit heritability estimates ranged from 0.42 to 0.57. Genetic and idiosyncratic environmental factors explain most of individual differences in reactivity to hypercapnia. Within-family similarities for this trait are largely explained by genetic determinants.

Title: A Genetically Informed Study of the Association Between Childhood Separation Anxiety, Sensitivity to CO2, Panic Disorder, and the Effect of Childhood Parental Loss

Authors: Battaglia M, Pesenti-Gritti P, Medland SE, Ogliari A, Tambs K, Spatola CA.

Journal: Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2009 Jan;66(1):64-71. doi: 10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2008.513. PMID: 19124689.

Link to PubMed: A Genetically Informed Study of the Association Between Childhood Separation Anxiety, Sensitivity to CO2, Panic Disorder, and the Effect of Childhood Parental Loss

Abstract: Context: Childhood separation anxiety disorder can predate panic disorder, which usually begins in early adulthood. Both disorders are associated with heightened sensitivity to inhaled CO(2) and can be influenced by childhood parental loss. Objectives: To find the sources of covariation between childhood separation anxiety disorder, hypersensitivity to CO(2), and panic disorder in adulthood and to measure the effect of childhood parental loss on such covariation. Design: Multivariate twin study. Participants: Seven hundred twelve young adults from the Norwegian Institute of Public Health Twin Panel, a general population cohort. Main outcome measures: Personal direct assessment of lifetime panic disorder through structured psychiatric interviews, history of childhood parental loss, and separation anxiety disorder symptoms. Subjective anxiety response to a 35% CO(2)/65% O(2) inhaled mixture compared with compressed air (placebo). Results: Our best-fitting solution yielded a common pathway model, implying that covariation between separation anxiety in childhood, hypersensitivity to CO(2), and panic disorder in adulthood can be explained by a single latent intervening variable influencing all phenotypes. The latent variable governing the 3 phenotypes' covariation was in turn largely (89%) influenced by genetic factors and childhood parental loss (treated as an identified element of risk acting at a family-wide level), which accounted for the remaining 11% of covariance. Residual variance was explained by 1 specific genetic variance component for separation anxiety disorder and variable-specific unique environmental variance components. Conclusions: Shared genetic determinants appear to be the major underlying cause of the developmental continuity of childhood separation anxiety disorder into adult panic disorder and the association of both disorders with heightened sensitivity to CO(2). Inasmuch as childhood parental loss is a truly environmental risk factor, it can account for a significant additional proportion of the covariation of these 3 developmentally related phenotypes.

Title: CO2-Induced Panic Attacks: A Twin Study

Authors: Bellodi L, Perna G, Caldirola D, Arancio C, Bertani A, Di Bella D.

Journal: Am J Psychiatry. 1998 Sep;155(9):1184-8. doi: 10.1176/ajp.155.9.1184. PMID: 9734540.

Link to PubMed: CO2-Induced Panic Attacks: A Twin Study

Abstract: Objective: The authors investigated the role of genetic factors in 35% CO2-induced panic attacks. Method: Ninety twins recruited from the general population were challenged with one-vital-capacity inhalations of 35% CO2-65% O2. Probandwise concordance rates were calculated and rates compared for monozygotic and for dizygotic twins. Results: A significantly higher concordance was found for 35% CO2-induced panic attacks among monozygotic than dizygotic twins (55.6% versus 12.5%). Conclusions: These results suggest a relevant role of genetic factors in 35% CO2-induced panic attacks.

Title: Panic disorder subtypes: differential responses to CO2 challenge

Authors: Biber B, Alkin T.

Journal: Am J Psychiatry. 1999 May;156(5):739-44. doi: 10.1176/ajp.156.5.739. PMID: 10327907.

Link to PubMed: Panic disorder subtypes: differential responses to CO2 challenge

Abstract: Objective: The purpose of this study was to investigate the possibility of a differential sensitivity to CO2 in patients diagnosed with panic disorder subtypes that were defined by the presence of prominent respiratory symptoms. Method: The authors used a 35% CO2 and 65% O2 mixture as a challenge agent. Fifty-one unmedicated subjects with DSM-III-R panic disorder, who were divided into respiratory (N = 28) and nonrespiratory (N = 23) subtypes by their symptom profiles, underwent a CO2 challenge procedure. Patients in the two groups were compared with regard to physiological and psychological measures, pulmonary function tests, panic rates, and smoking habits. Results: The patients in the respiratory group were significantly more sensitive to CO2 than were the patients in the nonrespiratory group. The respiratory group also had higher scores on the Panic and Agoraphobia Scale and had a longer duration of illness; both of these factors can be indicators of illness severity. In addition, the respiratory group's higher cigarette consumption (mean = 12.46 package-years, SD = 2.49) may have been a contributory factor not only for illness severity but also for the pathogenesis of panic disorder. Conclusions: The CO2 challenge procedure appears to be a good dissection tool in the understanding of different subtypes of panic disorder. Moreover, there may be a more specific association with prominent respiratory symptom subtype and CO2 hypersensitivity.

Title: Experiential, autonomic, and respiratory correlates of CO2 reactivity in individuals with high and low anxiety sensitivity

Authors: Blechert J, Wilhelm FH, Meuret AE, Wilhelm EM, Roth WT.

Journal: Psychiatry Res. 2013 Oct 30;209(3):566-73. doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2013.02.010. Epub 2013 Mar 13. PMID: 23489596.

Link to PubMed: Experiential, autonomic, and respiratory correlates of CO2 reactivity in individuals with high and low anxiety sensitivity

Abstract: Psychometric studies indicate that anxiety sensitivity (AS) is a risk factor for anxiety disorders such as panic disorder (PD). To better understand the psychophysiological basis of AS and its relation to clinical anxiety, we examined whether high-AS individuals show similarly elevated reactivity to inhalations of carbon dioxide (CO2) as previously reported for PD and social phobia in this task. Healthy individuals with high and low AS were exposed to eight standardized inhalations of 20% CO2-enriched air, preceded and followed by inhalations of room air. Anxiety and dyspnea, in addition to autonomic and respiratory responses were measured every 15 s. Throughout the task, high AS participants showed a respiratory pattern of faster, shallower breathing and reduced inhalation of CO2 indicative of anticipatory or contextual anxiety. In addition, they showed elevated dyspnea responses to the second set of air inhalations accompanied by elevated heart rate, which could be due to sensitization or conditioning. Respiratory abnormalities seem to be common to high AS individuals and PD patients when considering previous findings with this task. Similarly, sensitization or conditioning of anxious and dyspneic symptoms might be common to high AS and clinical anxiety. Respiratory conditionability deserves greater attention in anxiety disorder research.

Title: Respiratory, autonomic, and experiential responses to repeated inhalations of 20% CO₂ enriched air in panic disorder, social phobia, and healthy controls

Authors: Blechert J, Wilhelm FH, Meuret AE, Wilhelm EM, Roth WT.

Journal: Biol Psychol. 2010 Apr;84(1):104-11. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2010.01.002. Epub 2010 Jan 12. PMID: 20064582; PMCID: PMC2891596.

Link to full text: Respiratory, autonomic, and experiential responses to repeated inhalations of 20% CO₂ enriched air in panic disorder, social phobia, and healthy controls

Abstract: Inhalation of carbon dioxide (CO₂) enriched air triggers anxiety in panic disorder (PD) patients, which is often interpreted as a sign of biological vulnerability. However, most studies have not measured respiration in these tasks. We compared patients with PD (n=20) and social phobia (SP, n=19) to healthy controls (n=18) during eight inhalations of 20% CO₂, preceded and followed by two inhalations of room air, while continuously measuring subjective anxiety and dyspnea as well as autonomic and respiratory variables. PD patients showed increased reactivity and delayed recovery during CO₂ inhalations for most measures. Unlike both other groups, the PD group's tidal volume responses did not habituate across CO₂ inhalations. However, PD patients did not differ from SP patients on most other measures, supporting a continuum model of CO₂ sensitivity across anxiety disorders. Both patient groups showed continued reactivity during the last air inhalations, which is unlikely to be due to a biological sensitivity.

Title: The 35% CO challenge test in patients with social phobia

Authors: Caldirola D, Perna G, Arancio C, Bertani A, Bellodi L.

Journal: Psychiatry Res. 1997 Jun 16;71(1):41-8. doi: 10.1016/s0165-1781(97)00038-3. PMID: 9247980.

Link to PubMed: The 35% CO challenge test in patients with social phobia

Abstract: Panic disorder (PD) and social phobia (SP) share many clinical, demographic and biological characteristics. To investigate the relationships between the two disorders, the responses to inhalation of a 35% carbon-dioxide (CO2) and 65% oxygen (O2) gas mixture were assessed. Sixteen patients with PD, 16 patients with SP, 13 patients with both SP and PD, seven patients with SP who experienced sporadic unexpected panic attacks and 16 healthy control subjects inhaled one vital capacity of 35% CO2 or compressed air. A double-blind, randomized, crossover design was used. PD patients and SP patients showed similar anxiogenic reactions to 35% CO2, both stronger than seen in control subjects. Patients with both disorders and SP patients with sporadic unexpected panic attacks reacted similarly to subjects with PD or SP alone. These results suggest that PD and SP share a common hypersensitivity to CO2 and thus might belong to the same spectrum of vulnerability.

Title: Carbon Dioxide-Induced Emotion and Respiratory Symptoms in Healthy Volunteers

Authors: Colasanti A, Salamon E, Schruers K, van Diest R, van Duinen M, Griez EJ.

Journal: Neuropsychopharmacology. 2008 Dec;33(13):3103-10. doi: 10.1038/npp.2008.31. Epub 2008 Mar 19. PMID: 18354390.

Link to full text: Carbon Dioxide-Induced Emotion and Respiratory Symptoms in Healthy Volunteers

Abstract: A number of evidences have established that panic and respiration are closely related. Clinical studies indicated that respiratory sensations constitute a discrete cluster of panic symptoms and play a major role in the pathophysiology of panic. The aim of the present study was to explore the phenomenology of an experimental model of panic in healthy volunteers based on the hypothesis that: (1) we can isolate discrete clusters of panic symptoms, (2) respiratory symptoms represent a distinct cluster of panic symptoms, and (3) respiratory symptoms are the best predictor of the subjective feeling of panic, as defined in the DSM IV criteria. Sixty-four healthy volunteers received a double inhalation of four mixtures containing 0, 9, 17.5 and 35% CO(2,) respectively, in a double-blind, cross-over, random design. An electronic visual analog scale and the Panic Symptom List (PSL) were used to assess subjective 'fear/discomfort' and panic symptoms, respectively. Statistical analyses consisted of Spearman's correlations, a principal component factor analysis of the 13 PSL symptoms, and linear regressions analyses. The factor analysis extracted three clusters of panic symptoms: respiratory, cognitive, and neurovegetative (r(2)=0.65). Respiratory symptoms were highly related to subjective feeling of fear/discomfort specifically in the CO(2)-enriched condition. Moreover, the respiratory component was the most important predictor of the subjective feeling of 'fear/discomfort' (beta=0.54). The discrete clusters of symptoms observed in this study were similar to those elicited in panic attacks naturally occurring in patients affected by panic disorder. Consistent with the idea that respiration plays a crucial role in the pathophysiology of panic, we found that respiratory symptoms were the best predictors the subjective state defined in the DSM IV criteria for panic.

Title: Hypersensitivity to carbon dioxide as a disease-specific trait marker

Authors: Coryell W.

Journal: Biol Psychiatry. 1997 Feb 1;41(3):259-63. doi: 10.1016/s0006-3223(97)87457-4. PMID: 9024948.

Link to PubMed: Hypersensitivity to carbon dioxide as a disease-specific trait marker

Abstract: There is now substantial evidence that an abnormal threshold for suffocation alarm underlies panic disorder. Because this disorder is highly familial, evidence of an abnormal suffocation threshold may be apparent in high-risk individuals before they develop clinical illness. To explore this possibility, we used a single inhalation of 35% CO2 vs. air to evaluate 11 subjects who had at least one first-degree relative with DSM-III-R panic disorder, 13 who had at least two relatives treated for mania or for depression (HR-AD), and 15 low-risk controls who had no family history of panic disorder, affective disorder, or alcoholism (LR-C). All were aged 18-34 and had no history of panics or of any Research Diagnostic Criteria disorder. Five (45.5%) of the subjects at high risk for panic disorder, but none of the LR-C subjects (p = .007), nor any of the HR-AD subjects (p = .011), developed a panic attack following inhalation of the CO2 mixture.

Title: Anxiety responses to CO2 inhalation in subjects at high-risk for panic disorder

Authors: Coryell W, Pine D, Fyer A, Klein D.

Journal: J Affect Disord. 2006 May;92(1):63-70. doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2005.12.045. Epub 2006 Mar 9. PMID: 16527360.

Link to PubMed: Anxiety responses to CO2 inhalation in subjects at high-risk for panic disorder

Abstract: Background: A number of reports have shown that patients with panic disorder have greater anxiety responses to the inhalation of enhanced carbon dioxide mixtures than do well controls or patients with other psychiatric illnesses. Three earlier studies have shown that well individuals who have first-degree relatives with panic disorder also experience more anxiety following CO(2) than do controls without such a family history. The following was undertaken to confirm and extend these findings. Methods: Well subjects at high risk for panic disorder (

Title: The 35% CO2 Inhalation Procedure: Test–Retest Reliability

Authors: Coryell W, Arndt S.

Journal: Biol Psychiatry. 1999 Apr 1;45(7):923-7. doi: 10.1016/s0006-3223(98)00241-8. PMID: 10202581.

Link to PubMed: The 35% CO2 Inhalation Procedure: Test–Retest Reliability

Abstract: The subjective response to a single-breath, 35% carbon dioxide challenge test shows promise as a tool for the study of panic disorder and may comprise a trait marker for that disorder. Little has been done to measure the reliability of test results, however. Subjects took a single breath at 35% CO2 and completed a self-rating of anxiety symptoms immediately thereafter. This procedure was repeated after a mean interval of 29 days. One group, considered at high risk for panic disorder, consisted of well, first-degree relatives of individuals treated for panic disorder. The control group included well subjects at high risk for affective disorder and subjects who had family histories negative for both affective disorder and panic disorder. On both testing occasions, subjects at high risk for panic disorder had symptom scores that were significantly higher than those of control subjects. Group differences in the portions who experienced a panic attack were dependent on the symptom threshold used to define an attack. A lower threshold was optimal with the second testing and a single, positive test result appeared to be more meaningful than a single negative result. The majority of individual symptom ratings were highly correlated across tests. Ratings for "smothering sensations," in particular, correlated highly across tests and consistently discriminated high-risk from control subjects. The sources of test result variability are unclear and warrant more investigation before the tests can be clinically useful. Research efforts should seek optimal thresholds to define positive test results within given data sets.

Title: Restoring Acid-Sensing Ion Channel-1a in the Amygdala of Knock-Out Mice Rescues Fear Memory But Not Unconditioned Fear Responses

Authors: Coryell MW, Wunsch AM, Haenfler JM, Allen JE, McBride JL, Davidson BL, Wemmie JA.

Journal: J Neurosci. 2008 Dec 17;28(51):13738-41. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3907-08.2008. PMID: 19091964; PMCID: PMC2651157.

Link to full text: Restoring Acid-Sensing Ion Channel-1a in the Amygdala of Knock-Out Mice Rescues Fear Memory But Not Unconditioned Fear Responses

Abstract: Acid-sensing ion channel-1a (ASIC1a) contributes to multiple fear behaviors, however the site of ASIC1a action in behavior is not known. To explore a specific location of ASIC1a action, we expressed ASIC1a in the basolateral amygdala of ASIC1a-/- mice using viral vector-mediated gene transfer. This rescued context-dependent fear memory, but not the freezing deficit during training or the unconditioned fear response to predator odor. These data pinpoint the basolateral amygdala as the site where ASIC1a contributes to fear memory. They also discriminate fear memory from fear expressed during training and from unconditioned fear. Furthermore, this work illustrates a strategy for identifying discrete brain regions where specific genes contribute to complex behaviors.

Title: The effects of acceptance versus control contexts on avoidance of panic-related symptoms

Authors: Eifert GH, Heffner M.

Journal: J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry. 2003 Sep-Dec;34(3-4):293-312. doi: 10.1016/j.jbtep.2003.11.001. PMID: 14972675.

Link to full text: The effects of acceptance versus control contexts on avoidance of panic-related symptoms

Abstract: The present study compared the effects of creating an acceptance versus a control treatment context on the avoidance of aversive interoceptive stimulation. Sixty high anxiety sensitive females were exposed to two 10-min periods of 10% carbon dioxide enriched air, an anxiogenic stimulus. Before each inhalation period, participants underwent a training procedure aimed at encouraging them either to mindfully observe (acceptance context) or to control symptoms via diaphragmatic breathing (control context). A third group was given no particular training or instructions. We hypothesized that an acceptance rather than control context would be more useful in the reduction of anxious avoidance. Compared to control context and no-instruction participants, acceptance context participants were less avoidant behaviorally and reported less intense fear and cognitive symptoms and fewer catastrophic thoughts during the CO(2) inhalations. We discuss the implications of our findings for an acceptance-focused vs. control-focused context when conducting clinical interventions for panic and other anxiety disorders.

Title: The effects of acute exercise and high lactate levels on 35% CO2 challenge in healthy volunteers

Authors: Esquivel G, Schruers K, Kuipers H, Griez E.

Journal: Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2002 Nov;106(5):394-7. doi: 10.1034/j.1600-0447.2002.01333.x. PMID: 12366475.

Link to PubMed: The effects of acute exercise and high lactate levels on 35% CO2 challenge in healthy volunteers

Abstract: Objective: To test the possible antipanic effects of acute exercise in healthy volunteers exposed to an inhalation of 35% CO2 challenge. Method: Twenty healthy subjects in a randomized separate group design, performed exercise in a bicycle ergometer reaching >6 mm of blood lactate and a control condition of minimal activity in the same fashion with no lactate elevation. Immediately afterwards an inhalation of a vital capacity using a mixture of 35% CO2/65% O2 through a mask was given on both conditions. Results: Subjects under the exercise condition reported less panic symptoms than controls after a CO2 challenge on the diagnostic statistical manual-IV (DSM-IV) Panic Symptom List but no difference on the Visual Analogue Anxiety Scale. Conclusion: Subjects under the exertion condition had lactate levels comparable with those of lactate infusions but an inhibitory rather than accumulative effect was seen when combined with a CO2 challenge.

Title: To inhale or not to inhale: Conditioned avoidance in breathing behavior in an odor—20% CO2 paradigm

Authors: Fannes S, Van Diest I, Meulders A, De Peuter S, Vansteenwegen D, Van den Bergh O.

Journal: Biol Psychol. 2008 Apr;78(1):87-92. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2008.01.003. Epub 2008 Jan 31. PMID: 18316154.

Link to PubMed: To inhale or not to inhale: Conditioned avoidance in breathing behavior in an odor—20% CO2 paradigm

Abstract: This study investigated breathing behavior in an odor-CO2-inhalation fear conditioning paradigm. A differential conditioning paradigm was applied in 55 participants. Both acquisition and extinction consisted of three CS+ and three CS- trials. Diluted ammonia and butyric acid served as conditional odor cues (CSs); inhalation of 20% CO2-enriched as US. The US was presented 10s after CS+ onset and both stimuli co-terminated 30s later. Subjective anxiety and US-expectancy were measured online upon presentation of the CSs. Respiratory behavior showed a biphasic pattern during CS+ acquisition trials. Participants paradoxically lowered their ventilation first; an increased ventilation was observed only towards the end of the trial. Extinction of this breathing inhibition was found. Participants avoiding the CO2 during acquisition did not show a reduction in fear from acquisition to extinction, whereas Non-avoiders did. We conclude that paradoxical decreases in ventilation constitute a relevant behavioral index of fear in CO2-inhalation paradigms.

Title: Emotional avoidance: an experimental test of individual differences and response suppression using biological challenge

Authors: Feldner MT, Zvolensky MJ, Eifert GH, Spira AP.

Journal: Behav Res Ther. 2003 Apr;41(4):403-11. doi: 10.1016/s0005-7967(02)00020-7. PMID: 12643964.

Link to PubMed: Emotional avoidance: an experimental test of individual differences and response suppression using biological challenge

Abstract: The present study examined the affective consequences of response inhibition during a state of anxiety-related physical stress. Forty-eight non-clinical participants were selected on the basis of pre-experimental differences in emotional avoidance (high versus low) and subjected to four inhalations of 20% carbon dioxide-enriched air. Half of the participants were instructed to inhibit the challenge-induced aversive emotional state, whereas the other half was instructed to simply observe their emotional response. Participants high in emotional avoidance compared to those low in emotional avoidance responded with greater levels of anxiety and affective distress but not physiological arousal. Individuals high in emotional avoidance also reported greater levels of anxiety relative to the low emotional avoidance group when suppressing compared to observing bodily sensations. These findings are discussed in terms of the significance of emotional avoidance processes during physical stress, with implications for better understanding the nature of panic disorder.

Title: Anxiogenic effects of repeated administrations of 20% CO2-enriched air: stability within sessions and habituation across time

Authors: Forsyth JP, Lejuez CW, Finlay C.

Journal: J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry. 2000 Jun;31(2):103-21. doi: 10.1016/s0005-7916(00)00014-8. PMID: 11132115.

Link to PubMed: Anxiogenic effects of repeated administrations of 20% CO2-enriched air: stability within sessions and habituation across time

Abstract: Increasingly carbon dioxide-enriched air is being used as an aversive unconditioned stimulus in laboratory examinations of anxiety. Yet, little is known about the stability of the autonomic and subjective effects of this stimulus across repeated inhalations and sessions. We examined whether repeated administrations of high concentrations of CO2-enriched air produced either habituation, stability, or sensitization across several autonomic and self-report indices within one session (Experiment 1) and then several sessions (Experiment 2) of exposure. Results suggest that non-clinical participants do not habituate to CO2 within sessions, but do show habituation on cardiac and subjective report of anxiety across sessions. Individual difference factors such as anxiety sensitivity and suffocation fear seem to moderate some of these effects, including self-reported distress and anxiety in response to the challenge. These results support the use of CO2 as a panicogenic aversive stimulus in laboratory models of fear onset and in clinical settings for interoceptive exposure treatments of panic.

Title: The absence of relation between anxiety sensitivity and fear conditioning using 20% versus 13% CO2-enriched air as unconditioned stimuli

Authors: Forsyth JP, Palav A, Duff K.

Journal: Behav Res Ther. 1999 Feb;37(2):143-53. doi: 10.1016/s0005-7967(98)00113-2. PMID: 9990745.

Link to PubMed: The absence of relation between anxiety sensitivity and fear conditioning using 20% versus 13% CO2-enriched air as unconditioned stimuli

Abstract: Anxiety sensitivity has been implicated as a risk factor in the development and maintenance of anxiety and fear-related disorders. Indeed, persons who score high on the anxiety sensitivity index (ASI) are generally more responsive to biological challenge procedures such as CO2-inhalation that directly evoke the feared bodily events. One would expect, therefore, that persons high on anxiety sensitivity should be more conditionable and hence more likely to acquire fears, than persons low on anxiety sensitivity when CO2-enriched air is used as an unconditioned stimulus (UCS). Undergraduates (N = 96), scoring high, medium and low on the ASI received 8 repeated 20-s inhalations of either 20 or 13% CO2-enriched air (UCSs) paired with one of three CSs differing in fear-relevance (snake, heart and flowers). Several autonomic and self-report measures were assessed. Contrary to expectation, electrodermal and cardiac conditioned responses failed to discriminate between ASI groups. Yet, SUDS and severity and frequency of DSM-IV panic symptoms varied reliably as a function of anxiety sensitivity. Overall, the findings suggest that anxiety sensitivity is related to subjective fear-related complaints, but not autonomic responding and conditionability. We discuss clinical and theoretical implications for understanding the place fo anxiety sensitivity in fear onset.

Title: High-Dose Carbon Dioxide Challenge Test in Anxiety Disorder Patients

Authors: Gorman JM, Papp LA, Martinez J, Goetz RR, Hollander E, Liebowitz MR, Jordan F.

Journal: Biol Psychiatry. 1990 Nov 1;28(9):743-57. doi: 10.1016/0006-3223(90)90510-9. PMID: 2124151.

Link to full text: High-Dose Carbon Dioxide Challenge Test in Anxiety Disorder Patients

Abstract: Many investigators have shown that panic disorder patients and possibly social phobics are hypersensitive to the anxiogenic effects of inhaled carbon dioxide (CO2). In this study we administered double-breath inhalation of 35% CO2 and 65% oxygen (O2) to panic disorder patients, social phobics, and normal controls. At baseline, panic disorder patients were characterized by higher pulse, anxiety score, and evidence of hyperventilation. Panic patients and social phobics panicked more often to 35% CO2 than to room air; normal controls did not have a higher rate of panic to CO2 than to room air. However, we did not find significant group differences in anxiety level, physiological measures, or biochemical measures in response to CO2 breathing compared with room air breathing. These results confirm earlier reports of baseline hyperventilation in panic disorder patients. However, 35% CO2 may be too high a dose to differentiate respiratory responses of patients compared with normals.

Title: Anxiogenic effects of CO2 and hyperventilation in patients with panic disorder

Authors: Gorman JM, Papp LA, Coplan JD, Martinez JM, Lennon S, Goetz RR, Ross D, Klein DF.

Journal: Am J Psychiatry. 1994 Apr;151(4):547-53. doi: 10.1176/ajp.151.4.547. PMID: 8147452.

Link to PubMed: Anxiogenic effects of CO2 and hyperventilation in patients with panic disorder

Abstract: Objective: Previous studies have indicated that patients with panic disorder are more likely than normal subjects to have acute panic attacks during inhalation of CO2, but methodological objections have been raised. In this study the authors attempted to address three of these methodological problems by ensuring that raters who assessed whether panic attacks occurred were blind to subjects' diagnoses, by randomizing the order of administration of 5% CO2 and hyperventilation, and by challenging a greater number of subjects with 7% CO2. Method: Patients with panic disorder and normal subjects underwent 20-minute inhalations of 5% CO2 and 7% CO2 and 15 minutes of room-air hyperventilation. Ratings of panic/no panic during each condition were made separately by an assessor blind to diagnosis and by the subject. Scores on four panic rating scales were also recorded before and after each intervention. Results: Room-air hyperventilation caused panic attacks in a small number of patients; the difference in panic rate between patients and comparison subjects was statistically significant by the subjects' but not by the raters' assessment. Panic rates during 5% CO2 and 7% CO2 were significantly greater among the patients by both assessments; the panic rate was greatest during 7% CO2. Order of administration did not significantly affect panic rates for hyperventilation and 5% CO2. Conclusions: Panic patients were clearly more sensitive to the anxiogenic effects of CO2 than comparison subjects, and CO2 was a more potent anxiogenic stimulus than room-air hyperventilation. Seven percent CO2 discriminated best between patients and comparison subjects and should be the focus of further research.

Title: Response to hyperventilation in a group of patients with panic disorder

Authors: Gorman JM, Askanazi J, Liebowitz MR, Fyer AJ, Stein J, Kinney JM, Klein DF.

Journal: Am J Psychiatry. 1984 Jul;141(7):857-61. doi: 10.1176/ajp.141.7.857. PMID: 6428243.

Link to PubMed: Response to hyperventilation in a group of patients with panic disorder

Abstract: Twelve patients with DSM-III diagnoses of panic disorder and four normal volunteers were studied during hyperventilation of room air and increased ventilation stimulated by 5% CO2. Patients also underwent sodium lactate infusion. Eight of the patients had a panic attack during sodium lactate infusion, seven during CO2 inhalation, and three during room-air hyperventilation. Since CO2 increases the firing of the locus ceruleus, and since sodium lactate infusion is known to increase cerebral CO2, these findings are consistent with other evidence implicating the locus ceruleus in panic anxiety.

Title: The Effect of Successful Treatment on the Emotional and Physiological Response to Carbon Dioxide Inhalation in Patients with Panic Disorder

Authors: Gorman JM, Martinez J, Coplan JD, Kent J, Kleber M.

Journal: Biol Psychiatry. 2004 Dec 1;56(11):862-7. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2004.08.016. PMID: 15576063.

Link to PubMed: The Effect of Successful Treatment on the Emotional and Physiological Response to Carbon Dioxide Inhalation in Patients with Panic Disorder

Abstract: Background: A number of studies have shown that patients with panic disorder are more likely to have panic attacks during carbon dioxide inhalation than are normal comparison subjects. Some studies have shown that antipanic medications can reduce the anxiogenic response to carbon dioxide, but none have shown if this is the case for cognitive behavioral therapy or if successful treatment reduces the respiratory physiologic response to carbon dioxide. Methods: Twenty-five patients with panic disorder and 13 normal comparison subjects underwent baseline testing with 5% and 7% carbon dioxide inhalation. The patients were then retested after at least 12 weeks of treatment with either antipanic medication or cognitive behavioral therapy. Comparison subjects were retested after a similar interval. Results: Successful treatment resulted in lower panic rates, and reduced anxiogenic response. Treatment had no effect, however, on the respiratory physiologic response. Conclusions: There is dissociation in treatment response between the subjective and objective responses to carbon dioxide inhalation in panic disorder patients, with the former but not the latter showing positive change. We hypothesize that the strengthening of higher cortical control over subcortical fear-related structures, whether via medication or cognitive behavioral therapy treatment, results in less anxiety and fear in response to provoked symptoms reminiscent of naturally occurring panic.

Title: Ventilatory physiology of patients with panic disorder

Authors: Gorman JM, Fyer MR, Goetz R, Askanazi J, Liebowitz MR, Fyer AJ, Kinney J, Klein DF.

Journal: Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1988 Jan;45(1):31-9. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.1988.01800250035006. Erratum in: Arch Gen Psychiatry 1991 Feb;48(2):181. PMID: 2827599.

Link to PubMed: Ventilatory physiology of patients with panic disorder

Abstract: Thirty-one patients with DSM-III panic disorder or agoraphobia with panic attacks, 13 normal controls, and 12 patients with other anxiety disorders were studied during ventilatory challenge with room air hyperventilation and 5% carbon dioxide inhalation. Patients also underwent sodium lactate infusion. Among the patients with panic disorder, 58% panicked with sodium lactate, 39% with 5% CO2, and 23% with room air hyperventilation. Of the other patients, four panicked with sodium lactate, none with 5% CO2, and one with room air hyperventilation. One normal control panicked with both sodium lactate and 5% CO2. Panic with CO2 was associated with an exaggerated ventilatory response and increases in plasma norepinephrine level and diastolic blood pressure. Patients with panic disorder may have hypersensitive CO2 receptors that, when triggered, evoke a subjective panic associated with an exaggerated ventilatory response and consequent hypocapnic alkalosis.

Title: CO2 Vulnerability in Panic Disorder

Authors: Griez EJ, Lousberg H, van den Hout MA, van der Molen GM.

Journal: Psychiatry Res. 1987 Feb;20(2):87-95. doi: 10.1016/0165-1781(87)90001-1. PMID: 3107009.

Link to PubMed: CO2 Vulnerability in Panic Disorder

Abstract: The immediate effects of a single inhalation of a 35% CO2 mixture in oxygen were examined in 12 patients with panic disorders and 11 normal control subjects. Compared to a placebo air inhalation, the CO2 inhalation provoked short-lived autonomic panic symptoms in both patients and normals; it also elicited high subjective anxiety in patients with panic disorders. The latter rated the overall CO2-induced state as very similar to a real-life panic attack.

Title: Carbon Dioxide Inhalation Induces Dose-Dependent and Age-Related Negative Affectivity

Authors: Griez EJ, Colasanti A, van Diest R, Salamon E, Schruers K.

Journal: PLoS One. 2007 Oct 3;2(10):e987. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0000987. PMID: 17912364; PMCID: PMC1991589.

Link to full text: Carbon Dioxide Inhalation Induces Dose-Dependent and Age-Related Negative Affectivity

Abstract: Background: Carbon dioxide inhalation is known to induce an emotion similar to spontaneous panic in Panic Disorder patients. The affective response to carbon dioxide in healthy subjects was not clearly characterized yet. Methodology/principal findings: Sixty-four healthy subjects underwent a double inhalation of four mixtures containing respectively 0, 9, 17.5 and 35% CO(2) in compressed air, following a double blind, cross-over, randomized design. Affective responses were assessed according to DSM IV criteria for panic, using an Electronic Visual Analogue Scale and the Panic Symptom List. It was demonstrated that carbon dioxide challenges induced a dose dependent negative affect (p<0.0001). This affect was semantically identical to the DSM IV definition of panic. Older individuals were subjectively less sensitive to Carbon Dioxide (p<0.05). Conclusions/significance: CO(2) induced affectivity may lay on a continuum with pathological panic attacks. Consistent with earlier suggestions that panic is a false biological alarm, the affective response to CO(2) may be part of a protective system triggered by suffocation and acute metabolic distress.

Title: Induction of c-Fos in 'panic/defence'-related brain circuits following brief hypercarbic gas exposure

Authors: Johnson PL, Fitz SD, Hollis JH, Moratalla R, Lightman SL, Shekhar A, Lowry CA.

Journal: J Psychopharmacol. 2011 Jan;25(1):26-36. doi: 10.1177/0269881109353464. Epub 2010 Jan 15. PMID: 20080924.

Link to PubMed: Induction of c-Fos in 'panic/defence'-related brain circuits following brief hypercarbic gas exposure

Abstract: Inspiration of air containing high concentrations of carbon dioxide (CO(2); hypercarbic gas exposure) mobilizes respiratory, sympathetic and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis responses and increases anxiety-like behaviour in rats and humans. Meanwhile the same stimulus induces panic attacks in the majority of panic disorder patients. However, little is known about the neural circuits that regulate these acute effects. In order to determine the effects of acute hypercarbic gas exposure on forebrain and brainstem circuits, conscious adult male rats were placed in flow cages and exposed to either atmospheric air or increasing environmental CO(2) concentrations (from baseline concentrations up to 20% CO(2)) during a 5 min period. The presence of immunoreactivity for the protein product of the immediate-early gene c-fos was used as a measure of functional cellular responses. Exposing rats to hypercarbic gas increased anxiety-related behaviour and increased numbers of c-Fos-immunoreactive cells in subcortical regions of the brain involved in: (1) the initiation of fear- or anxiety-associated behavioural responses (i.e. the dorsomedial hypothalamus, perifornical nucleus and dorsolateral and ventrolateral periaqueductal gray); (2) mobilization of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (i.e. the dorsomedial hypothalamus, perifornical nucleus and paraventricular hypothalamic nucleus); and (3) initiation of stress-related sympathetic responses (i.e. the dorsomedial hypothalamus, dorsolateral periaqueductal grey and rostroventrolateral medulla). These findings have implications for understanding how the brain senses changes in environmental CO(2) concentrations and the neural mechanisms underlying the subsequent adaptive changes in stress-related physiology and behaviour.

Title: Neural Pathways Underlying Lactate-Induced Panic

Authors: Johnson PL, Truitt WA, Fitz SD, Lowry CA, Shekhar A.

Journal: Neuropsychopharmacology. 2008 Aug;33(9):2093-107. doi: 10.1038/sj.npp.1301621. Epub 2007 Dec 5. PMID: 18059441; PMCID: PMC3065200.

Link to full text: Neural Pathways Underlying Lactate-Induced Panic

Abstract: Panic disorder is a severe anxiety disorder characterized by susceptibility to induction of panic attacks by subthreshold interoceptive stimuli such as 0.5 M sodium lactate infusions. Although studied for four decades, the mechanism of lactate sensitivity in panic disorder has not been understood. The dorsomedial hypothalamus/perifornical region (DMH/PeF) coordinates rapid mobilization of behavioral, autonomic, respiratory and endocrine responses to stress, and rats with disrupted GABA inhibition in the DMH/PeF exhibit panic-like responses to lactate, similar to panic disorder patients. Utilizing a variety of anatomical and pharmacological methods, we provide evidence that lactate, via osmosensitive periventricular pathways, activates neurons in the compromised DMH/PeF, which relays this signal to forebrain limbic structures such as the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis to mediate anxiety responses, and specific brainstem sympathetic and parasympathetic pathways to mediate the respiratory and cardiovascular components of the panic-like response. Acutely restoring local GABAergic tone in the DMH/PeF blocked lactate-induced panic-like responses. Autonomic panic-like responses appear to be a result of DMH/PeF-mediated mobilization of sympathetic responses (verified with atenolol) and resetting of the parasympathetically mediated baroreflex. Based on our findings, DMH/PeF efferent targets such as the C1 adrenergic neurons, paraventricular hypothalamus, and the central amygdala are implicated in sympathetic mobilization; the nucleus of the solitary tract is implicated in baroreflex resetting; and the parabrachial nucleus is implicated in respiratory responses. These results elucidate neural circuits underlying lactate-induced panic-like responses and the involvement of both sympathetic and parasympathetic systems.

Title: Sex differences in response to a panicogenic challenge procedure: an experimental evaluation of panic vulnerability in a non-clinical sample

Authors: Kelly MM, Forsyth JP, Karekla M.

Journal: Behav Res Ther. 2006 Oct;44(10):1421-30. doi: 10.1016/j.brat.2005.10.012. Epub 2005 Dec 20. PMID: 16364237.

Link to PubMed: Sex differences in response to a panicogenic challenge procedure: an experimental evaluation of panic vulnerability in a non-clinical sample

Abstract: Epidemiological studies show that women are twice as likely as men to develop panic disorder (PD) during their lifetimes. Data from retrospective studies also suggest that women are more distressed by panic and other negative emotional states than men, and that this tendency may precede the development of PD. The present prospective study sought to expand this work by evaluating sex differences in the predisposition to panic in individuals without PD or other forms of psychopathology. Participants (N=96; 52 women) were exposed to 12 panicogenic inhalations of 20% CO2-enriched air while physiological (e.g., heart rate, electrodermal response, Frontalis EMG) and self-report (e.g., subject distress, fear, frequency and severity of DSM-IV panic symptoms) response domains were monitored. As expected, magnitude of autonomic responding failed to reliably discriminate between women and men. Yet, women reported more fear and panic immediately following the challenge procedure relative to men, and this sex difference persisted when assessed again 30 min post-challenge. Implications of these results are discussed broadly in the context of biopsychosocial accounts of sex differences in the clinical presentation of PD.

Title: Carbon dioxide inhalation as a human experimental model of panic: The relationship between emotions and cardiovascular physiology

Authors: Leibold NK, Viechtbauer W, Goossens L, De Cort K, Griez EJ, Myin-Germeys I, Steinbusch HW, van den Hove DL, Schruers KR.

Journal: Biol Psychol. 2013 Oct;94(2):331-40. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2013.06.004. Epub 2013 Jun 28. PMID: 23816952.

Link to PubMed: Carbon dioxide inhalation as a human experimental model of panic: The relationship between emotions and cardiovascular physiology

Abstract: Inhaling carbon dioxide (CO2)-enriched air induces fear and panic symptoms resembling real-life panic attacks, the hallmark of panic disorder. The present study aimed to describe the emotional and cardiovascular effects evoked by inhaling CO2, taking shortcomings of previous studies into account. Healthy volunteers underwent a double inhalation of 0, 9, 17.5, and 35% CO2, according to a randomized, cross-over design. In addition to fear, discomfort, and panic symptom ratings, blood pressure and heart rate were continuously monitored. Results showed a dose-dependent increase in all self-reports. Systolic and diastolic blood pressure rose with increasing CO2 concentration, whereas heart rate results were less consistent. Diastolic blood pressure and heart rate variation correlated with fear and discomfort. Based on this relationship and the observation that the diastolic blood pressure most accurately mimicked the degree of self-reported emotions, it might serve as a putative biomarker to assess the CO2-reactivity in the future.

Title: Avoidance of 20% carbon dioxide-enriched air with humans

Authors: Lejuez CW, O'Donnell J, Wirth O, Zvolensky MJ, Eifert GH.

Journal: J Exp Anal Behav. 1998 Jul;70(1):79-86. doi: 10.1901/jeab.1998.70-79. PMID: 9684345; PMCID: PMC1284669.

Link to full text: Avoidance of 20% carbon dioxide-enriched air with humans

Abstract: Four college students were exposed to a Sidman avoidance procedure to determine if an avoidance contingency involving 20% carbon dioxide-enriched air (CO2) would produce and maintain responding. In Phase 1, two conditions (contingent and noncontingent) were conducted each day. These conditions were distinguished by the presence or absence of a blue or green box on a computer screen. In the contingent condition, CO2 presentation were delivered every 3 s unless a subject pulled a plunger. Each plunger pull postponed CO2 presentations for 10 s. In the noncontingent condition, CO2 presentations occurred on the average of every 5 min independent of responding. Following stable responding in Phase 1, condition-correlated stimuli were reversed. In both conditions, plunger response rate was high during the contingent condition and low or zero during the noncontingent condition. Furthermore, subjects avoided most CO2 presentations. However, CO2 presentations did not increase verbal reports of fear. Overall, the results from the present study suggest that CO2 can be used effectively in basic studies of aversive control and in laboratory analogues of response patterns commonly referred to as anxiety.

Title: Examination of mask disturbance behavior during a carbon dioxide-enriched air challenge

Authors: Marshall-Berenz EC, Gonzalez A, Leyro TM, Zvolensky MJ.

Journal: J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry. 2011 Sep;42(3):253-7. doi: 10.1016/j.jbtep.2011.01.004. Epub 2011 Jan 12. PMID: 21349246; PMCID: PMC3086949.

Link to full text: Examination of mask disturbance behavior during a carbon dioxide-enriched air challenge

Abstract: Background and objectives: The present investigation examined mask disturbance behavior in the context of a biological challenge. Method: Participants included 128 adults (63.3% women; M(age) = 23.2, SD = 8.9) who underwent a 10% carbon dioxide-enriched air challenge. Results: Mask disturbance behavior, including complete or partial mask removal, was common during the challenge. Moreover, mask removal behavior during the challenge was significantly related to a greater increase in anxiety pre- to post-challenge, as well as greater levels of self-reported avoidance of a future challenge administration. However, mask touching and lifting behaviors were not related to other challenge criterion variables. Limitations: The current study consisted primarily of young adults and did not include individuals with a panic disorder diagnosis. Replication and extension of the current findings is recommended. Conclusions: Results suggest that mask removal behavior during the challenge may represent a possible behavioral marker of panic-relevant risk, although further work is necessary to determine its usefulness as a challenge measure.

Title: Shared Variance Among Self-Report and Behavioral Measures of Distress Intolerance

Authors: McHugh RK, Daughters SB, Lejuez CW, Murray HW, Hearon BA, Gorka SM, Otto MW.

Journal: Cognit Ther Res. 2011 Jun;35(3):266-275. doi: 10.1007/s10608-010-9295-1. PMID: 23894216; PMCID: PMC3721199.

Link to full text: Shared Variance Among Self-Report and Behavioral Measures of Distress Intolerance

Abstract: Distress intolerance may be an important individual difference variable in understanding maladaptive coping responses across diagnostic categories. However, the measurement of distress intolerance remains inconsistent across studies and little evidence for convergent validity among existing measures is available. This study evaluated the overlap among self-report and behavioral measures of distress intolerance in four samples, including an unselected sample, a sample of patients with drug dependence, and two samples of cigarette smokers. Results suggested that the self-report measures were highly correlated, as were the behavioral measures; however, behavioral and self-report measures did not exhibit significant associations with each other. There was some evidence of domain specificity, with anxiety sensitivity demonstrating strong associations with somatic distress intolerance, and a lack of association between behavioral measures that elicit affective distress and those that elicit somatic distress. These findings highlight a potential divergence in the literature relative to the conceptualization of distress intolerance as either sensitivity to distress or as the inability to persist at a task when distressed. Further research is needed to elucidate the conceptualization and measurement of distress intolerance to facilitate future clinical and research applications of this construct.

Title: History of suffocation, state-trait anxiety, and anxiety sensitivity in predicting 35% carbon dioxide-induced panic

Authors: Monkul ES, Onur E, Tural U, Hatch JP, Alkın T, Yücel B, Fidaner H.

Journal: Psychiatry Res. 2010 Sep 30;179(2):194-7. doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2009.06.015. Epub 2010 May 16. PMID: 20478634.

Link to PubMed: History of suffocation, state-trait anxiety, and anxiety sensitivity in predicting 35% carbon dioxide-induced panic

Abstract: The aim of this study was to examine the effects of history of suffocation, state-trait anxiety, and anxiety sensitivity on response to a 35% carbon dioxide (CO₂) challenge in panic disorder patients, their healthy first-degree relatives and healthy comparisons. Thirty-two patients with panic disorder, 32 first-degree relatives, and 34 healthy volunteers underwent the 35% CO₂ challenge. We assessed baseline anxiety with the Anxiety Sensitivity Index (ASI) and State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI1), and panic symptoms with the Panic Symptom List (PSL III-R). A history of suffocation was associated with greater risk of CO₂ reactivity in the combined sample. Patients had more anxiety sensitivity and state and trait anxiety than relatives and healthy comparisons; the difference between relatives and healthy comparisons was not significant. In female patients, trait anxiety predicted CO₂-induced panic. Having a CO₂-sensitive panic disorder patient as a first-degree relative did not predict CO₂-induced panic in a healthy relative. History of suffocation may be an important predictor of CO₂-induced panic. Trait anxiety may have a gender-specific relation to CO₂ reactivity.

Title: Acute panicogenic, anxiogenic and dissociative effects of carbon dioxide inhalation in patients with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

Authors: Muhtz C, Yassouridis A, Daneshi J, Braun M, Kellner M.

Journal: J Psychiatr Res. 2011 Jul;45(7):989-93. doi: 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2011.01.009. Epub 2011 Feb 15. PMID: 21324483.

Link to PubMed: Acute panicogenic, anxiogenic and dissociative effects of carbon dioxide inhalation in patients with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

Abstract: Background: Increased anxiety and panic to inhalation of carbon dioxide (CO(2)) has been described in patients with anxiety disorders, especially panic disorder, compared to healthy subjects. Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) has been hypothesised to resemble panic disorder and is currently classified as an anxiety disorder in DSM-IV. However, there are only very few data available about the sensitivity of patients with PTSD to CO(2). Methods: In 10 patients with PTSD, 10 sex- and age-matched healthy subjects and 8 patients with panic disorder we assessed anxiety, panic, dissociative and PTSD symptoms before and after a single vital capacity inhalation of 35% CO(2). Results: Patients with PTSD showed an increased anxiety, panic and dissociative reaction to the inhalation of 35% CO(2) compared to healthy participants. PTSD subjects' responses were indistinguishable from those of panic patients. Additionally, PTSD-typical symptoms like post-traumatic flashbacks were provoked in patients with PTSD after the inhalation of CO(2). Conclusions: In our sample, PTSD was associated with an increased CO(2) reactivity, pointing to an increased susceptibility of PTSD patients to CO(2) challenge.

Title: Panicogens in patients with Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

Authors: Muhtz C, Wiedemann K, Kellner M.

Journal: Curr Pharm Des. 2012;18(35):5608-18. doi: 10.2174/138161212803530817. PMID: 22632476.

Link to PubMed: Panicogens in patients with Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

Abstract: Symptom provocation has proved its worth for understanding the pathophysiology of diseases and in general for the development of new therapeutic approaches in the medical field. In the research of anxiety disorders, investigations using experimentally induced panic attacks by various agents, such as sodium lactate, carbon dioxide, cholezystokinine-tetrapetid etc., have a long tradition and allow the exploration of usually naturally occuring spontaneous psychopathological phenomena under controlled conditions. Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is a prevalent disorder that can develop following exposure to an extreme traumatic event. In DSM-IV it is currently classified as an anxiety disorder and shares phenomenological similarities with panic disorder. The use of panicogenic challenge tests is also an interesting neurobiological approach to learn more about the nature of PTSD and may be a possibility to develop new therapeutic strategies for the treatment of PTSD symptoms. Not only panic anxiety, but also flashbacks and other dissociative symptoms can be provoked by several panicogens in PTSD. The purpose of this review is to evaluate studies using panicogens in PTSD. Methodological short-comings of current studies and needed directions of further research are discussed.

Title: 35% Carbon dioxide and breath-holding challenge tests in panic disorder: a comparison with spontaneous panic attacks

Authors: Nardi AE, Valença AM, Mezzasalma MA, Lopes FL, Nascimento I, Veras AB, Freire RC, de-Melo-Neto VL, Zin WA.

Journal: Depress Anxiety. 2006;23(4):236-44. doi: 10.1002/da.20165. PMID: 16528718.

Link to PubMed: 35% Carbon dioxide and breath-holding challenge tests in panic disorder: a comparison with spontaneous panic attacks

Abstract: Respiration and its control mechanisms may represent an important system involved in abnormal anxiety. Our aim was to compare the demographic and clinical features of patients with panic disorder (PD) with agoraphobia (DSM-IV) who had a panic attack after both the 35% carbon dioxide (CO(2)) test and the breath-holding test (CPA group), and compare them with PD patients who did not have a panic attack after both tests (NPA group). We examined 76 patients with PD who were administered a 35% CO(2)test and a breath-holding test within a 1-week interval. Anxiety scales were applied before and after each test. A panic attack was induced in 50 (65.8%) patients during the CO(2)test (chi(2) = 28.44, df = 1, P<.001) and in 40 (52.6%) patients during the breath-holding test (chi(2) = 15.35, df = 1, P = .036). All patients who had a panic attack during the breath-holding test also had a panic attack during the CO(2)test (n = 40; CPA group). Twenty-six (34.2%) patients with PD did not have a panic attack after both respiratory tests (NPA group). The CPA group had more (chi(2) = 21.67, df = 1, P = .011) respiratory PD subtype. In the CPA group, the disorder started earlier (Mann-Whitney, P<.001), had a higher familial prevalence of PD (chi(2) = 18.34, df = 1, P = .028), and had more previous depressive episodes (chi(2) = 23.59, df = 1, P<.001). Our data suggest that there is an association between respiratory PD subtype and the response to respiratory challenge tests: CO(2)and breath-holding. The CPA may be confirmed as a subgroup of respiratory PD subtype.

Title: Sex differences in panic-relevant responding to a 10% carbon dioxide-enriched air biological challenge

Authors: Nillni YI, Berenz EC, Rohan KJ, Zvolensky MJ.

Journal: J Anxiety Disord. 2012 Jan;26(1):165-72. doi: 10.1016/j.janxdis.2011.10.008. Epub 2011 Nov 6. PMID: 22115836; PMCID: PMC3254702.

Link to full text: Sex differences in panic-relevant responding to a 10% carbon dioxide-enriched air biological challenge

Abstract: The current study examined sex differences in psychological (i.e., self-reported anxiety, panic symptoms, and avoidance) and physiological (i.e., heart rate and skin conductance level) response to, and recovery from, a laboratory biological challenge. Participants were a community-recruited sample of 128 adults (63.3% women; M(age)=23.2 years, SD=8.9) who underwent a 4-min 10% CO(2)-enriched air biological challenge. As predicted, women reported more severe physical panic symptoms and avoidance (i.e., less willingness to participate in another challenge) and demonstrated increased heart rate as compared to men above and beyond the variance accounted for by other theoretically relevant variables (recent panic attack history, neuroticism, and anxiety sensitivity). Additionally, women demonstrated a faster rate of recovery with respect to heart rate compared to men. These results are in line with literature documenting sex-specific differences in panic psychopathology, and results are discussed in the context of possible mechanisms underlying sex differences in panic vulnerability.

Title: The Relationships between Adverse Events, Early Antecedents, and Carbon Dioxide Reactivity as an Intermediate Phenotype of Panic Disorder

Authors: Ogliari A, Tambs K, Harris JR, Scaini S, Maffei C, Reichborn-Kjennerud T, Battaglia M.

Journal: Psychother Psychosom. 2010;79(1):48-55. doi: 10.1159/000259417. Epub 2009 Nov 18. PMID: 19923875.

Link to PubMed: The Relationships between Adverse Events, Early Antecedents, and Carbon Dioxide Reactivity as an Intermediate Phenotype of Panic Disorder

Abstract: Background: Although adverse events have been consistently described to precede and potentially precipitate the onset of panic disorder, there is no information about their ability to alter the individual reactivity to inhaled carbon dioxide, a putative intermediate phenotype of susceptibility to panic disorder. Method: Seven-hundred twelve subjects belonging to the general population-based Norwegian Institute of Public Health Twin Panel underwent a 35% CO(2)/65% O(2) inhalation challenge test and interview-based lifetime assessments of DSM-IV panic disorder, separation anxiety disorder, childhood parental separation/loss, major life events, adverse events of suffocative nature and common stressful life events. Regression models were applied to predict global subjective anxiety and DSM-IV panic symptoms after 35% CO(2)/65% O(2) inhalation. Results: The responses to the challenge measured as semicontinuous variables were predicted by symptoms of childhood separation anxiety, childhood parental loss, common stressful events, major life events, suffocative events and the female gender. The role of most of these predictors was confirmed and held true after the exclusion of subjects with lifetime panic attacks/disorder from the analyses. Conclusions: Several factors which have been reported by previous clinical studies to influence the individual susceptibility to develop panic disorder seem to affect the individual reactivity to inhaled carbon dioxide in people from the general population. Some elements of risk may impact simultaneously upon the individual liability to panic and exaggerated sensitivity to hypercapnia.

Title: Respiratory Psychophysiology of Panic Disorder: Three Respiratory Challenges in 98 Subjects

Authors: Papp LA, Martinez JM, Klein DF, Coplan JD, Norman RG, Cole R, de Jesus MJ, Ross D, Goetz R, Gorman JM.

Journal: Am J Psychiatry. 1997 Nov;154(11):1557-65. doi: 10.1176/ajp.154.11.1557. PMID: 9356564.

Link to PubMed: Respiratory Psychophysiology of Panic Disorder: Three Respiratory Challenges in 98 Subjects

Abstract: Objective: Respiratory abnormalities may play a central role in the pathophysiology of panic disorder. The current study was undertaken to examine the respiratory response in the largest series of subjects to date during three respiratory challenges that used improved methodology. Method: Fifty-nine patients with DSM-III-R panic disorder and 39 normal volunteers were challenged with 5% and 7% CO2 inhalation and room air hyperventilation separated by room air breathing with continuous spirometry. Results: Patients with panic disorder were more sensitive to the anxiogenic effects of CO2 than were normal subjects, and CO2 was a more potent stimulus to panic than hyperventilation. Patients increased their respiratory rate more quickly during CO2 inhalation than did comparison subjects, and this increase preceded the panic attacks. Patients who panicked in response to 5% CO2 demonstrated continued rise in end-tidal CO2, while the end-tidal CO2 of the comparison groups stabilized. Low end-tidal CO2 and high variance in minute ventilation at baseline predicted panic attacks during CO2 inhalation. Following CO2 or hyperventilation challenges, respiratory rate dropped sharply, while tidal volume remained elevated longer in patients than in comparison subjects. Conclusions: The findings confirm the greater behavioral and physiological sensitivity of patients with panic disorder to CO2 inhalation and identify a series of respiratory abnormalities. Panic attacks in panic disorder may be explained by inefficient compensatory mechanisms, primarily of respiratory rate.

Title: Diagnostic and substance specificity of carbon-dioxide-induced panic

Authors: Papp LA, Klein DF, Martinez J, Schneier F, Cole R, Liebowitz MR, Hollander E, Fyer AJ, Jordan F, Gorman JM.

Journal: Am J Psychiatry. 1993 Feb;150(2):250-7. doi: 10.1176/ajp.150.2.250. PMID: 8123056.

Link to PubMed: Diagnostic and substance specificity of carbon-dioxide-induced panic

Abstract: Objective: The authors assessed the substance and diagnostic specificity of carbon-dioxide-induced panic since, in addition to the specific biochemical effects of inhaled carbon dioxide (CO2), simple physiologic distress is also frequently implicated as a panicogenic factor during respiratory challenge studies with CO2 in patients with anxiety disorders. Method: Eighteen patients with panic disorder, 20 with social phobia, and 23 psychiatrically normal subjects inhaled a mixture of 35% CO2 and 65% O2 for 30 seconds through a face mask. They also breathed for 30 seconds through a valve reducing the diameter of the airway. A double-blind, counterbalanced, randomized design was used. Results: In spite of important similarities between the two interventions, including the induction of equal amounts of subjective respiratory distress, carbon dioxide inhalation was significantly more potent than increased airway resistance in provoking panic in the anxiety disorder patients. The patients with panic disorder were significantly more sensitive to CO2 than were the patients with social phobia or the normal subjects. Conclusions: Carbon dioxide inhalation appears to have a specific panicogenic effect in panic patients that goes beyond simple breathlessness.

Title: Psychophysiological responses to CO2 inhalation

Authors: Pappens M, De Peuter S, Vansteenwegen D, Van den Bergh O, Van Diest I.

Journal: Int J Psychophysiol. 2012 Apr;84(1):45-50. doi: 10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2012.01.008. Epub 2012 Jan 20. PMID: 22265938.

Link to PubMed: Psychophysiological responses to CO2 inhalation

Abstract: Inhalation of CO(2)-enriched air has been used as a laboratory model for a number of anxiety disorders, such as general anxiety disorder and panic disorder. Because studies describing psychophysiological responses to this challenge are scarce, the present studies investigated skin conductance level, eyeblink startle, self-reported anxiety and fractional end-tidal carbon dioxide during inhalation of CO(2)-enriched air. In study 1, thirty-five healthy volunteers inhaled 7.5% CO(2) for 2min. In study 2, twenty healthy volunteers inhaled 20% CO(2) for 30s. Control groups (N=20 in each study) inhaled room air during the same time periods. Compared to room air breathing, both CO(2)-mixtures were associated with increases in skin conductance levels, self-reported anxiety and fractional end-tidal CO(2.) Eyeblink startles were inhibited during CO(2) compared to room air breathing in both experiments. Our findings suggest that inhalation of CO(2)-enriched air is associated with a circa-strike defensive response pattern, corroborating its application as an interoceptive, panic-relevant stimulus in fear research.

Title: Carbon dioxide/oxygen challenge test in panic disorder

Authors: Perna G, Battaglia M, Garberi A, Arancio C, Bertani A, Bellodi L.

Journal: Psychiatry Res. 1994 May;52(2):159-71. doi: 10.1016/0165-1781(94)90085-x. PMID: 7972572.

Link to PubMed: Carbon dioxide/oxygen challenge test in panic disorder

Abstract: The effects of a single inhalation of a 35% CO2/65% O2 gas mixture were examined in 71 patients with panic disorder with or without agoraphobia and 44 normal control subjects. Compared with the placebo condition, inhalation of air, the CO2/O2 mixture elicited a clear anxiety reaction only in panic disorder patients, who experienced a sudden rise of subjective anxiety as well as of several panic symptoms. Respiratory symptoms and the fear of dying best distinguished the patients from the control subjects. Baseline anxiety was not the key factor in explaining this differential reaction. The clinical features of panic disorder (namely, frequency of panic attacks, agoraphobia, anticipatory anxiety, and duration of illness) were not significantly related to the response to the challenge test, suggesting that CO2 reactivity might be a trait marker of panic disorder.

Title: 35% CO2 challenge in panic and mood disorders

Authors: Perna G, Barbini B, Cocchi S, Bertani A, Gasperini M.

Journal: J Affect Disord. 1995 Mar 14;33(3):189-94. doi: 10.1016/0165-0327(94)00088-q. PMID: 7790671.

Link to PubMed: 35% CO2 challenge in panic and mood disorders

Abstract: 20 patients with Panic Disorder (PD), 19 patients with Mood Disorder (MD) and 20 healthy controls inhaled one vital capacity of 35% CO2-65% O2 gas mixture and of compressed air in a double-blind, random, cross-over design. Only PD patients showed a strong reaction to 35% CO2 while MD patients and controls did not react significantly. These results support the specificity of the 35% CO2 challenge in PD patients and suggest that PD and MD are separate disorders.

Title: Antipanic drug modulation of 35% CO2 hyperreactivity and short-term treatment outcome

Authors: Perna G, Bertani A, Caldirola D, Gabriele A, Cocchi S, Bellodi L.

Journal: J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2002 Jun;22(3):300-8. doi: 10.1097/00004714-200206000-00011. PMID: 12006901.

Link to PubMed: Antipanic drug modulation of 35% CO2 hyperreactivity and short-term treatment outcome

Abstract: Carbon dioxide (CO2) inhalation induces acute anxiety and panic attacks in patients with Panic Disorder (PD). Anti-panic drugs decrease CO2 reactivity after the first days of treatment; however, the clinical meaning of this finding has not yet been established. This study investigated the effects of treatment with tricyclic antidepressants and selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors (SSRIs) on CO2 reactivity and compared the relationships between 35% CO2 hyperreactivity modulation and short-term clinical outcome. One hundred twenty-three patients with PD with or without agoraphobia who were hyperreactive to CO2 were randomly assigned to treatment groups with imipramine, clomipramine, paroxetine, sertraline, or fluvoxamine. A double-blind, randomized design was applied. Each patient received the 35% CO2 challenge on days 0, 7, and 30. The severity of clinical symptomatology was measured on days 0 and 30. Decreased hyperreactivity to 35% CO2 in all five treatment groups was already evident after the first week. The decrease in CO2 reactivity at the end of treatment was proportional to the degree of clinical improvement. Multiple regression analyses showed that the decrease in CO2 reactivity after the first week was a significant predictor for good clinical outcome after one month. The results of this study confirm evidence that psychoactive drugs effective in the treatment of PD decrease CO2 hyperreactivity. They also suggest that precocious modulation of CO2 reactivity might fairly reliably predict short-term clinical outcome in patients with "respiratory" PD.

Title: Sensitivity to 35% CO2 in healthy first-degree relatives of patients with panic disorder

Authors: Perna G, Cocchi S, Bertani A, Arancio C, Bellodi L.

Journal: Am J Psychiatry. 1995 Apr;152(4):623-5. doi: 10.1176/ajp.152.4.623. PMID: 7694916.

Link to PubMed: Sensitivity to 35% CO2 in healthy first-degree relatives of patients with panic disorder

Abstract: Objective: The authors tested the hypothesis that hyperreactivity to CO2 in healthy subjects represents an underlying familial vulnerability to panic disorder. Method: One vital-capacity inhalation of 35% CO2 and 65% O2 was administered to each of 84 patients with panic disorder, 23 healthy first-degree relatives of probands with panic disorder, and 44 healthy subjects with no family history of panic disorder. Results: The first-degree relatives of the probands with panic disorder reacted significantly more than the healthy subjects and significantly less than the probands. Conclusions: These findings suggest an association between family history of panic disorder and hyperreactivity to 35% CO2 in healthy subjects.

Title: Differential carbon dioxide sensitivity in childhood anxiety disorders and nonill comparison group

Authors: Pine DS, Klein RG, Coplan JD, Papp LA, Hoven CW, Martinez J, Kovalenko P, Mandell DJ, Moreau D, Klein DF, Gorman JM.

Journal: Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2000 Oct;57(10):960-7. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.57.10.960. PMID: 11015814.

Link to PubMed: Differential carbon dioxide sensitivity in childhood anxiety disorders and nonill comparison group

Abstract: Background: To examine the relationship between respiratory regulation and childhood anxiety disorders, this study considered the relationship between anxiety disorders and symptoms during carbon dioxide (CO(2)) exposure, CO(2) sensitivity in specific childhood anxiety disorders, and the relationship between symptomatic and physiological responses to CO(2). Methods: Following procedures established in adults, 104 children (aged 9-17 years), including 25 from a previous study, underwent 5% CO(2) inhalation. The sample included 57 probands with an anxiety disorder (social phobia, generalized anxiety disorder, separation anxiety disorder, and panic disorder) and 47 nonill comparison subjects. Symptoms of anxiety were assessed before, during, and after CO(2) inhalation. Results: All children tolerated the procedure well, experiencing transient or no increases in anxiety symptoms. Children with an anxiety disorder, particularly separation anxiety disorder, exhibited greater changes in somatic symptoms during inhalation of CO(2)-enriched air, relative to the comparison group. During CO(2) inhalation, symptom ratings were positively correlated with respiratory rate increases, as well as with levels of tidal volume, minute ventilation, end-tidal CO(2), and irregularity in respiratory rate during room-air breathing. Conclusions: Childhood anxiety disorders, particularly separation anxiety disorder, are associated with CO(2) hypersensitivity, as defined by symptom reports. Carbon dioxide hypersensitivity is associated with physiological changes similar to those found in panic disorder. These and other data suggest that certain childhood anxiety disorders may share pathophysiological features with adult panic disorder.

Title: Humans without a sense of smell breathe differently

Authors: Gorodisky, L., Honigstein, D., Weissbrod, A. et al.

Journal: Nat Commun 15, 8809 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-52650-6

Link to full text: Humans without a sense of smell breathe differently

Abstract: Olfaction may play a restricted role in human behavior, yet paradoxically, its absence in anosmia is associated with diverse deleterious outcomes, culminating in reduced life expectancy. The mammalian nose serves two purposes: olfaction and breathing. Because respiratory patterns are impacted by odors, we hypothesized that nasal respiratory airflow may be altered in anosmia. We apply a wearable device that precisely logs nasal airflow for 24-hour-long sessions in participants with isolated congenital anosmia and controls. We observe significantly altered patterns of respiratory nasal airflow in anosmia in wake and in sleep. These differences allow classification of anosmia at 83% accuracy using the respiratory trace alone. Patterns of respiratory airflow have pronounced impact on health, emotion and cognition. We therefore suggest that a portion of the deleterious outcomes associated with anosmia may be attributed to altered patterns of respiratory nasal airflow rather than a direct result of lost odor perception per se.

Title: Dismantling the Component-Specific Effects of Yogic Breathing: Feasibility of a Fully Remote Three-Arm RCT with Virtual Laboratory Visits and Wearable Physiology

Authors: Ma Y, Yang H, Vazquez M, Buraks O, Haack M, Mullington JM, Goldstein MR.

Journal: Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2023 Feb 11;20(4):3180. doi: 10.3390/ijerph20043180. PMID: 36833875; PMCID: PMC9958552.

Link to full text: Dismantling the Component-Specific Effects of Yogic Breathing: Feasibility of a Fully Remote Three-Arm RCT with Virtual Laboratory Visits and Wearable Physiology

Abstract: Despite the growing research base examining the benefits and physiological mechanisms of slow-paced breathing (SPB), mindfulness (M), and their combination (as yogic breathing, SPB + M), no studies have directly compared these in a ”dismantling” framework. To address this gap, we conducted a fully remote three-armed feasibility study with wearable devices and video-based laboratory visits. Eighteen healthy participants (age 18–30 years, 12 female) were randomized to one of three 8-week interventions: slow-paced breathing (SPB, N = 5), mindfulness (M, N = 6), or yogic breathing (SPB + M, N = 7). The participants began a 24-h heart rate recording with a chest-worn device prior to the first virtual laboratory visit, consisting of a 60-min intervention-specific training with guided practice and experimental stress induction using a Stroop test. The participants were then instructed to repeat their assigned intervention practice daily with a guided audio, while concurrently recording their heart rate data and completing a detailed practice log. The feasibility was determined using the rates of overall study completion (100%), daily practice adherence (73%), and the rate of fully analyzable data from virtual laboratory visits (92%). These results demonstrate feasibility for conducting larger trial studies with a similar fully remote framework, enhancing the ecological validity and sample size that could be possible with such research designs.

Title: Increased net water loss by oral compared to nasal expiration in healthy subjects

Authors: Svensson S, Olin AC, Hellgren J.

Journal: Rhinology. 2006 Mar;44(1):74-7. PMID: 16550955.

Link to full text: Increased net water loss by oral compared to nasal expiration in healthy subjects

Abstract: Aim of the study: To compare the difference in respiratory water loss during expiration through the nose and through the mouth, in healthy subjects. Methods: The study included 19 healthy, non-smoking volunteers without any present history of non-infectious rhinitis, presenting with symptoms of rhinitis, asthma or previous nasal surgery. Nasal and oral expiratory breath condensates were collected using a breath condenser during tidal respiration at indoor resting conditions. During the nasal breath condensate sampling, the subjects were breathing into a transparent face mask covering the nose and the mouth with the mouth closed. During the oral breath condensate sampling, the subjects inhaled through the nose and exhaled through a mouthpiece connected to the condenser. The airflow during the sampling was assessed with a dry-spirometer connected to the condenser. Sampling was stopped after 100 litres of expired air for each breathing mode. Nasal sampling was done before and after decongestion of the nasal mucosa with oxymetazoline, 0.5 mg/ml. The effect on the nasal mucosa was assessed with acoustic rhinometry. Results: The mean loss of expired water was 42% less by nasal expiration before decongestion than by oral expiration (1.9 x 10(-3) g/L min compared to 2.7 x 10(-3) g/L min, p < 0.001). The mean expiratory minute ventilation was 9.0 L/min by nasal respiration and 9.8 L/min by oral respiration. Decongestion of the nasal mucosa showed a mean increase of the cross-sectional area at 4 cm from the nostril (1.44 to 1.67 cm2, p = 0.0024), but there was no effect on the net water loss (1.9 x 10(-3) g/Lmin vs 1.9 x 10(-3) g/Lmin). Conclusion: This study showed that the net water loss increased by 42% when the breathing mode was switched from nasal to oral expiration during tidal breathing in healthy subjects. Increased water and energy loss by oral breathing could be a contributing factor to the symptoms seen in patients suffering from nasal obstruction.

Title: Levels of end-tidal carbon dioxide are low despite normal respiratory rate in individuals with long COVID

Authors: Wood J, Tabacof L, Tosto-Mancuso J, McCarthy D, Kontorovich A, Putrino D.

Journal: J Breath Res. 2021 Dec 8;16(1). doi: 10.1088/1752-7163/ac3c18. PMID: 34808607.

Link to full text: Levels of end-tidal carbon dioxide are low despite normal respiratory rate in individuals with long COVID

Abstract: ETCO2 and respiratory rate (RR) were measured in patients attending an outpatient clinic using an EMMA capnograph (Masimo Corporation, Irvine, CA). Approval for the collection and publication of this data was provided by the relevant Institutional Review Board (STUDY-20-001537). All patients were previously reviewed by a physician and diagnosed with confirmed (via PCR and/or antibody test) or probable (according to World Health Organization and Center for Disease Control and Prevention guidelines [6, 7]) past COVID-19 infection. The criteria for diagnosis of long COVID was the presence of persistent symptoms for at least 12 weeks after initial infection [2]. The capnograph was calibrated and a healthy control was used to check device readings at the commencement of each clinic. At the time of assessment, patients were seated and at rest, and had not performed other assessments or procedures immediately prior. Patients were instructed to breathe orally through the capnograph adapter at their resting rate and depth for a minimum of 15 s, and until the ETCO2 level was stable for a further period of at least 5 s. Data were analyzed using Stata (StataCorp LLC, TX), with descriptive statistics and Pearson correlation coefficient provided.

Title: Effects of decortication and carotid sinus nerve section on ventilation of the rat

Authors: Maskrey M, Megirian D, Nicol SC.

Journal: Respir Physiol. 1981 Mar;43(3):263-73. doi: 10.1016/0034-5687(81)90108-0. PMID: 6792671.

Link to full text: Effects of decortication and carotid sinus nerve section on ventilation of the rat

Abstract: The effect on ventilation of exposure to hypoxic, hypercapnic and hypoxic/hypercapnic gas mixtures was studied before and after functional decortication of intact rats and rats in which the carotid chemoreceptors had been disconnected. Unanaesthetized rats responded to both hypoxia and hypercapnia with an increase in minute ventilation (V) through increases in both frequency (f) and tidal volume (VT). Decortication led to a greater V response to CO2. This was through an effect on f, rather than VT. Carotid sinus nerve section (CSNS) caused a lessening in the V response to gas mixtures, f and VT being equally affected. Decortication, following CSNS, increased the V response but this time through increased VT rather than f. This effect on VT was not specific to any particular gas mixture. It is concluded that the carotid body chemoreceptors, together with the bulbopontine rate controller, influence the response to CO2. It is further suggested that this integration takes place in the reticular formation and is normally under some degree of inhibition from the cerebral cortex.

Title: Topical cutaneous application of carbon dioxide via a hydrogel for improved fracture repair: results of phase I clinical safety trial

Authors: Niikura T, Iwakura T, Omori T, Lee SY, Sakai Y, Akisue T, Oe K, Fukui T, Matsushita T, Matsumoto T, Kuroda R.

Journal: BMC Musculoskelet Disord. 2019 Nov 25;20(1):563. doi: 10.1186/s12891-019-2911-7. PMID: 31766994; PMCID: PMC6878668.

Link to full text: Topical cutaneous application of carbon dioxide via a hydrogel for improved fracture repair: results of phase I clinical safety trial

Abstract: Background: Clinicians have very limited options to improve fracture repair. Therefore, it is critical to develop a new clinically available therapeutic option to assist fracture repair biologically. We previously reported that the topical cutaneous application of carbon dioxide (CO2) via a CO2 absorption-enhancing hydrogel accelerates fracture repair in rats by increasing blood flow and angiogenesis and promoting endochondral ossification. The aim of this study was to assess the safety and efficacy of CO2 therapy in patients with fractures.

Methods: Patients with fractures of the femur and tibia were prospectively enrolled into this study with ethical approval and informed consent. The CO2 absorption-enhancing hydrogel was applied to the fractured lower limbs of patients, and then 100% CO2 was administered daily into a sealed space for 20 min over 4 weeks postoperatively. Safety was assessed based on vital signs, blood parameters, adverse events, and arterial and expired gas analyses. As the efficacy outcome, blood flow at the level of the fracture site and at a site 5 cm from the fracture in the affected limb was measured using a laser Doppler blood flow meter.

Results: Nineteen patients were subjected to complete analysis. No adverse events were observed. Arterial and expired gas analyses revealed no adverse systemic effects including hypercapnia. The mean ratio of blood flow 20 min after CO2 therapy compared with the pre-treatment level increased by approximately 2-fold in a time-dependent manner.

Conclusions: The findings of the present study revealed that CO2 therapy is safe to apply to human patients and that it can enhance blood flow in the fractured limbs.

Title: Transcutaneous carbon dioxide application accelerates muscle injury repair in rat models

Authors: Akahane S, Sakai Y, Ueha T, Nishimoto H, Inoue M, Niikura T, Kuroda R.

Journal: Int Orthop. 2017 May;41(5):1007-1015. doi: 10.1007/s00264-017-3417-2. Epub 2017 Feb 16. PMID: 28210805.

Link to PubMed: Transcutaneous carbon dioxide application accelerates muscle injury repair in rat models

Abstract: Purpose: Skeletal muscle injuries are commonly observed in sports and traumatology medicine. Previously, we demonstrated that transcutaneous application of carbon dioxide (CO2) to lower limbs increased the number of muscle mitochondria and promoted muscle endurance. Therefore, we aimed to investigate whether transcutaneous CO2 application could enhance recovery from muscle injury.

Methods: Tibialis anterior muscle damage was induced in 27 Sprague Dawley rats via intramuscular injection of bupivacaine. After muscle injury, rats were randomly assigned to transcutaneous CO2-treated or -untreated groups. From each group, three rats were sacrificed at weeks one, two, four and six. At each time point, histology and immunofluorescence analyses were performed, and changes in muscle weight, muscle weight/body weight ratio, muscle fibre circumference, gene expression levels and capillary density were measured.

Results: Injured muscle fibres were completely repaired at week six in the CO2-treated group but only partially repaired in the untreated group. The repair of basement and plasma membranes did not differ significantly between groups. However, expression levels of genes and proteins related to muscle protein synthesis were significantly higher in the CO2-treated group and significantly more capillaries four weeks after injury.

Conclusion: Transcutaneous CO2 application can accelerate recovery after muscle injury in rats.

Title: Transcutaneous carbon dioxide application suppresses bone destruction caused by breast cancer metastasis

Authors: Takemori T, Kawamoto T, Ueha T, Toda M, Morishita M, Kamata E, Fukase N, Hara H, Fujiwara S, Niikura T, Kuroda R, Akisue T.

Journal: Oncology Reports, 40, 2079-2087. https://doi.org/10.3892/or.2018.6608

Link to full text: Transcutaneous carbon dioxide application suppresses bone destruction caused by breast cancer metastasis

Abstract: Hypoxia plays a significant role in cancer progression, including metastatic bone tumors. We previously reported that transcutaneous carbon dioxide (CO2) application could decrease tumor progression through the improvement of intratumor hypoxia. Therefore, we hypothesized that decreased hypoxia using transcutaneous CO2 could suppress progressive bone destruction in cancer metastasis. In the present study, we examined the effects of transcutaneous CO2 application on metastatic bone destruction using an animal model. The human breast cancer cell line MDA-MB-231 was cultured in vitro under three different oxygen conditions, and the effect of altered oxygen conditions on the expression of osteoclast-differentiation and osteolytic factors was assessed. An in vivo bone metastatic model of human breast cancer was created by intramedullary implantation of MDA-MB-231 cells into the tibia of nude mice, and treatment with 100% CO2 or a control was performed twice weekly for two weeks. Bone volume of the treated tibia was evaluated by micro-computed tomography (µCT), and following treatment, histological evaluation was performed by hematoxylin and eosin staining and immunohistochemical staining for hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF)-1α, osteoclast-differentiation and osteolytic factors, and tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase (TRAP) staining for osteoclast activity. In vitro experiments revealed that the mRNA expression of RANKL, PTHrP and IL-8 was significantly increased under hypoxic conditions and was subsequently reduced by reoxygenation. In vivo results by µCT revealed that bone destruction was suppressed by transcutaneous CO2, and that the expression of osteoclast-differentiation and osteolytic factors, as well as HIF-1α, was decreased in CO2-treated tumor tissues. In addition, multinucleated TRAP-positive osteoclasts were significantly decreased in CO2-treated tumor tissues. Hypoxic conditions promoted bone destruction in breast cancer metastasis, and reversal of hypoxia by transcutaneous CO2 application significantly inhibited metastatic bone destruction along with decreased osteoclast activity. The findings in this study strongly indicated that transcutaneous CO2 application could be a novel therapeutic strategy for treating metastatic bone destruction.

Title: Effects of the duration of transcutaneous CO2 application on the facilitatory effect in rat fracture repair

Authors: Oda T, Iwakura T, Fukui T, Oe K, Mifune Y, Hayashi S, Matsumoto T, Matsushita T, Kawamoto T, Sakai Y, Akisue T, Kuroda R, Niikura T.

Journal: J Orthop Sci. 2020 Sep;25(5):886-891. doi: 10.1016/j.jos.2019.09.017. Epub 2019 Oct 18. PMID: 31635930.

Link to full text: Effects of the duration of transcutaneous CO2 application on the facilitatory effect in rat fracture repair

Abstract: Background: Carbon dioxide therapy has been reported to be effective in treating certain cardiac diseases and skin problems. Although a previous study suggested that transcutaneous carbon dioxide application accelerated fracture repair in association with promotion of angiogenesis, blood flow, and endochondral ossification, the influence of the duration of carbon dioxide application on fracture repair is unknown. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of the duration of transcutaneous carbon dioxide application on rat fracture repair.

Methods: A closed femoral shaft fracture was created in each rat. Animals were randomly divided into four groups: the control group; 1w-CO2 group, postoperative carbon dioxide treatment for 1 week; 2w-CO2 group, postoperative carbon dioxide treatment for 2 weeks; 3w-CO2 group, postoperative carbon dioxide treatment for 3 weeks. Transcutaneous carbon dioxide application was performed five times a week in the carbon dioxide groups. Sham treatment, where the carbon dioxide was replaced with air, was performed for the control group. Radiographic, histological, and biomechanical assessments were performed at 3 weeks after fracture.

Results: The fracture union rate was significantly higher in the 3w-CO2 group than in the control group (p < 0.05). Histological assessment revealed promotion of endochondral ossification in the 3w-CO2 group than in the control group. In the biomechanical assessment, all evaluation items related to bone strength were significantly higher in the 3w-CO2 group than in the control group (p < 0.05).

Conclusions: The present study, conducted using an animal model, demonstrated that continuous carbon dioxide application throughout the process of fracture repair was effective in enhancing fracture healing.